JOHNA.SEAVERNS 


iil''.,.,;J:i, 


r     V 


UNITED      STATES 

Business  Man^s,  Farmer^s  &  Gardener^s 

COMPANION, 

AND   COMPLETE 

DOMESTIC  ANIMAL  DOCTOR. 

COMPRISING     VALUABLE     INFORMATION    IN    RESPECT    TO 

CONTRACTS,   BILLS,   NOTES, 

AND    THE 

VARIOUS  FORMS  OF  LAW : 

Deduced  from  the  Opinions  of  Judges  Story,  Kent,  and  others  i 

FORMING 

A  COMPLETE  LEGAL  ADVISOR. 

ALSO,  THE  VERY  BEST  DIRECTIONS  FOR 

Analyzings   Emiching^   and   Tilling   the    Soil; 

DRAWN   FROM   THE 
Ohen&ical  Investigations  of  Liebig,  Sir  H*  Davy,  and  others* 

ALSO,  AN  EXCELLENT 

SYSTEM    OF    GARDENING. 

BY  WM.  COBBITT,    M.  P. 

TO    WHICH   IS   ADDED,   THE    MOST  CELEBRATED    METHOD   OF 

RAISING  AND  DOCTORING  HORSES,  CATTLE,  SHEEP,  AND  SWWR, 

EVER  PRESENTED  TO  THE  PUBLIC. 
BY  -WILLIAM  YOUATT  A  FRANCIS  CliA^ER. 


NEW    YORK: 
PUBLISHED  AT  128  NASSAU  STREET. 

185  1. 


^»^N^N^»^^#^ 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1351, 

BY   E.    HUTCHINSON, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District 

of  New- York. 


Business  Man's  &  Farmer's  Lawyer ; 


LEGAL  &  COMMERCIAL  INSTRUCTOR. 


CONTENTS. 

A                                   PAGE 

I 

PAQB 

Acceptance         .... 

9 

Interest  Table— Legal  , 

19 

Accomaiodation  Bill  and  Nous    . 

10 

L 

Affidavits  and  Depositions 

16 

Leases 
T,ease — Form  of 

^ 

29 

Agtni           .... 

12 

as 

Agreenient          .... 

13 

15 
33 

M 

Alteration    ... 
Apprenticeship— Indenture  of 

B 

Marriage  Certificates 
do.       Settlements   . 

• 

18 
30 

do.              do        a  Jointuie  set- 

Bill  of  Lading 

18 

tied  on  an  intended  Wife 

30 

Bond— Form  of  a  simple 

26 

Mortgacres 

40 

Bonds          ..... 

c 

26 

Mungage  of  Real  Estate  . 

. 

41 

N 

Coin.s-Gold      .... 
do.  —Silver 

45 
47 

Note— Promissory 
do.      on  Tiinu 

8 
22 

D 

• 

do.      on  Demand 

22 

Deeds      

36 

do.      Payable  at  Bank 

, 

22 

Deed— Form  of  a  Quit  Claim 

37 

do           do.      by  Instalments 

23 

<lo.             do.             do,        with  Co- 

Notes—Neg')tiable 

. 

22 

venant          .... 

37 

do.      not  Negotiable 

23 

Deed.s— Form  of  Acknowleilgment  of. 
in   Me  ,  N.  II  .  Mass  ,  Vt.,   and 

do.      do.       do.         on  Time 

23 

do.      do.       do.             do. 

"with 

other  State.? 

39 

Inicrcst 

24 

do.    do.   do.    by  a  person  conveying 

do.      do.        do.  •      payable 

0  two 

24 

by  a  Power  of  Alton  ey     . 

39 

do.      do.        do,         made  bv 

two   . 

24 

do.    do.    Ccriiiicate  of  Acknowledg- 

0 

• 

ment  of 

39 

Orders 

^ 

27 

Drafts 

2S 

do.    for  Money 

27 

do.      at  S:ght 

28 

do     for  Merchandise     . 

27 

do.     Thiny  Davs  after  Date 

28 

P 

Due  Bills*  .        '   . 

25 

do         Forms  of       . 

25 

Patent  OITice- Fees  payable  at 

44 

Due  liill— Cash  on  Demand 

25 

do.             do.      Time     '     . 

25 

Renting— Certificates  of  . 

43 

do.         Payable  in  Wood 

25 

do.        Tenant's  Agreement  in  com- 

do.               do.        Work    . 

26 

mon  llSf. 

43 

E 

do.        Landlord's      do.      do. 

do.' 

43 

Exchange— Form  of  Bill  of 

7 

w 

• 

do.              do.         do. 

21 

Will— Form  of  . 

39 

do.         Set  of  Bills  of 

21 

ELEMENTS 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 


CONTENTS, 


^  PAOB 

Matter  as  Manure,  ty  Prof.      < 
Liebig  and  Sir  H.  Davy     .  .    33 

B 

Baiiey 


Beet,  for  the  Field  . 

Bone-Dusi  coiisidpred  as  Manure,  by 

Prol.  Liebig  and  Sir  H.  D«vy 
Buckwheat 

c 

Cabbage,  in  Fields 
Carrot,  in  Fields  . 
Cropn— Succession  of  . 

do.       Good  Rules  concerning 
CttlliTatiop  of  Plants,  for  their  Seeds 

D 

Draining  .... 

E 

Excrements  of  Animals — Its  Mode  of 
Action,  and  Preservation 

F 

Fallowing,  and  Green  Crops  consider- 
ed as  Vegeuble  Manure    . 
Flax  .... 

Forage     .  ... 

G 
Orassea— Serial 
Oraas  Lands— .Management  of 

I 
ImplennflDla  ofthe  Farm    . 


33 


Leguminoos  Plants  .    VB 

M 

Maize  ....  16 

Manures  •  .12 

I      do.      Excrements  of  Animals,  by 

Prof.  Liebig  and  Sir  H.  Davy        .    3B 
Maple  Sugar  .  .  .  S 

I  o 

Oata IS 

I  P 

Parsnip,  in  Fields  ...  21 

Pea If 

Plants,  cultivated  for  thflirFniita  & 

Ploughing  .  .18 

Pouto         .  .  .  .  K 

I  R 

Rye n 

i  s 

Soils— External  Characteristics  of  9 

I    do.     The  Properties  of,  as  deiermin- 

ed  by  Chemical  .Analysis  .     If 

I   do.     Means  of  Increasing  the  Pro- 
ductive Powers  of  .11 
do.     Prof  Liebiff'a  and  Sir  H.  Da- 
vy's Invealigaiions  on        .  M 
Sugar                                 .      ••    .           92 


15 

23  Turnip,  io  Fieldii 


12  Wheat 


w 


AMERICAN   GARDENER 


BY  WM.  COBBITT,  M.  P. 


• 

CONTENTS. 

A 

TAOB 

H 

»A9» 

AJth«aFrutcx    . 

.    44 

Hollyhock 

.    48 

AMmone     . 

. 

44 

HoiieyeuckM 

46 

Albutus 

:           .    45 

Hyacinth 

48 

Artichoke    . 

,        , 

22 

Hop              .... 

88 

Asparagus 

.    23 

Horse-Radish     .           , 

.    » 

Asire,  (China) 

,        » 

45 

Hotbeds      ... 

10 

.4iaJia     :. 

.    45 

do.      Management  of 

.    13 

B  * 

Hyssop        .... 

39 

Daira 

,        , 

25 

L 

Balsam    . 

.    45 

Laying  out  a  Garden    . 

.    10 

Basil 

, 

26 

Lettuce         .... 

9 

Bean 

.    26 

M 

do.    Kidney 
Beet,  for  Garden 
Briar— Sweet 
Burnet    . 

c' 

26 
.    28 

45 
.    29 

Manures,  adaptad  to  a  Garden 

Marjoram    .... 

Marigold 

Melon           .... 

.     9 

40 

.    4» 

40 

Mustard 

.   40 

Cabbage,  for  Gardea 

30 

0 

Onion          .... 
P 

Calabaah 
CamJllia 

• 

'.   -g 

41 

Camomile 

, 

.    33 

Capsicum,  (or  Peppers)  . 

f           33 

Parsley    .... 

.   41 

Caraway 

.    33 

Parsnip,  for  Garden 

4! 

Carnation    . 

^ 

46 

Pea.  for  Garden 

.   41 

Carrot,  for  Garden 

.    34 

Pennyroyal 

41 

Cauliflower 

1 

34 

Potato     .           .'          .           . 

.    42 

Celery      . 

.    35 

do.    Sweet 

42 

Clore 

, 

46 

Propagation  &  Cultivation  in  general    M 

Columbine 

^ 

.    46 

Pumpkin 

.    4Si 

Coriander    . 

, 

37 

R 

Corn,  (Indian,)  (or  Garden 

.    37 

Radish 

68 

Com  Salad 
Cowslip 

• 

37 
.    47 

Rhubarb 
Roses 

Crese,  (or  Pepper-grass)  . 

37 

S 

Crocus 

.    47 

Cucumber    . 

. 

37 

Sage         . 

.    4» 

Cultivation 

.    20 

Savory         .... 

43 

d' 

Seed— Sort  of     . 

.    M 

Daisy 

46 

do.     Saving  and  Preoerrlng  ol 
Soil,  of  a  Garden 

17 
.     8 

F 

Sowing  Seeds  in  a  Garden 

18 

Flowers,  and  Ornamental  Gai 

rdening    44 

Squash    .... 

.    43 

G 

T 

Garden— Situation  of    . 

7 

Tomato        .           .         |  . 

43 

Geranium     . 

^ 

47 

Traa'planting    . 

.    18 

Green-housM      , 

.    14 

Turnip,  lor  Garden 

40 

GueUier  Rose 

• 

48 

V 

Vegetable*  and  Hurba 

9S 

THE    HORSE    DOCTOR. 


BY  W.   YOUATT. 


CONTENTS. 


A.  PAGB 

Apoplexy,  or  Sta^^erg             .  .      t^ 
do.              Sympinms  .            .8 

do.              Tit-atmenl           .  •      9 

B 

Jtecking,  or  Jibbing           .           .  22 

•Biting 24 

■  ♦Bog  or  Blood  Spavin         .           -  47 
:?Boiis        .                       .            .  .17 

iBrnin — Di^^easesof            .           .  7 

do.       Pressure  of       .            .  .7 

Breeding      ....  19 

€ 

■Castration           .           .           .  .20 

Catarrh,  or  PoM    ...  15 

Colic--Spaf  inodic         '            .  .18 

do.            do.        Remedy          .  IB 

Corna       .           .            .           .  .41 

Cough                      .           ,           ,  42 

Cramp     .            .                       .  .     10 

Crib— Bitins           ...  32 

do.        do. '  No  2.        .            .  ,    43 

•.Curb             ....  43 

Culling    .            .            .            .  .43 

E 

Eyes            ....  44 
F 

"ilTraclure                                   •  .7 

G 

■'Gettin?  the  Cheek  of  the  Bit  in  the 

M  utii    .            .            .            .  ffi 

■Glan.ls— LInlarged          .            .  .43 

'GUfDiiurd      ....  13 

"        in  the  Human  Being  .     14 

11 

'Hernia,  or  Rtinture  18 

■  llocli— EiiUrged             .            .  .41 

Jaundice,  or  Yellows         .           .  19 

K 

Kicking              .           .  .26 

Li 

Lameness    ...  45 

M 

Mfgrims             .           .            .  .8 

N 

Not  Lyinq  Down    .           .           .  M 

o 

Ophthalmia— Specific  or  Moon  Blind- 
ness .                       .  .11 
♦lo.           do.           do.           Ucmedy     12 
Overreach               ...  34 


PA  OS 

.    10 
II 


Palgy         .... 
do     Treatment  of 

Pawin?                .           .           .  .35 

Phrenitis                 .            .  .•           9 

do.        Symptoma                  .  .9 

do.        Remedy  .              9 

Phthisis  Pulmonalis,  or  Consumption    17 


Polypus— Nasal 

Putiiicei]  Foot 

Purchase  and  Sale  of  Horses 


Quiddinz 
Quittor 


No.  2. 


Rabies,  or  Madness 

do.  do.       Symptoms 

Hearing       .... 
Rpsiveness        .  .  .  . 

Rheumatism 
Ringbone  .  .  .  . 

d...       No.  2.       . 
Rolling    .  .  .  .  . 

Roa  mg,  Wheezing.  Whistling,  High- 

bliiwiiig.  and  Uruntmg 
Running  Away 


Sand'^iack    .            .            .           .  46 

Shving     ...                       .  .87 

Skull- Injuries  and  Diseaseeof  .  7 

Slipping  the  Coliar        .            .  .39 

S.iniiili. CSS  of  Horses                       .  41 

Splint                                            .  .47 
Sirangles      .            .                        .14 

di>.        Treatment      .            .  .la 

S'nn-I.alt     ....  10 

SwH  lowin?,  without  Grinding  .    31 

Swelled  Legs            ...  21 

Uo         CO.    Remedy              .  .    £1 

T 

Tetanus,  or  Locked  Jaw    .            .  9 

do.                    do            ?ympti  ms  .      9 

do.                   CO.           Rem<  liy  10 

Thickening  of  the  Back  Sinews  .    47 

Tripping      ....  39 

Unsteadiness  while  bi  ing  Mi  unied.  27 

V 

Vices,  and   Dipaereeah'e  or  Danger- 
ous Iliibiia  of  the  Horse  .    2) 

Vicious  to  Cean     ...  29 

do.        Shi>c                          .  .30 

w 


Osfltt\caiiun  o(  the  Lateral  Caiii.cged    4o  .  Weaning 


DIRECTIONS 


RAISING  CATTLE,  SHEEP  &  SWINE. 


CONTENTS, 


AliTH'ive  Powder  lor  Swir.e 

AIUMt  VV'Uey  .  .  .  '^ 

Ai>i'|>l«-xy   iinii  Inllamnulioo  of   the 

Braiii.  in  Swine      .  .    4.') 

d,.  ilo  Symptoms  ol    45 


^^4*^  I  Lic'^^rick!',  and  Flies   . 

Lull:/.— liillainmdiion  of  . 

JNl 


FAOa 

.    43 


Ars.-  ical  Wisli  lor  Slieep  l.icc    .  4- 

AstiUiiieiit  Uiiiik  •  •    ^' 

dj.  do.     with  Mutton  Suet       23 

B 

Bladder— Inflammation  of 

(1.1  do.  Drink  lor 

B!er  iing       .  •  •  • 

Bov/i'.s  -Inflammation  of 
Brdi.i— latiainniatioii  uf,  in  Sheep 

C 
Ch   ki'i?       .  .  .  ^ 

CoH  a!  ticinof  the  Milk 
Coi  !    n  i  Cough— Uor^e,  in  Cattle 
Col  ',   (lid  disi-.haigc  from  ilie  Nose,  in 

Sliei-u 
Coo  :  i;  Fever  Drink    . 
Co   :,a   Unnk  .  .  »• 

Cos  i  .-u-ss 

i;  >.         in  Swir.c 
Con -!!i  and  Ft' ver  Drink 
Cow  I'lKk    .... 

do.        Lotion  for    . 

D 

Diar  hoBa  (or  Pursing)  in  Cattle  . 
di).  do.  Sheep 

DiSi^'.sesof  Horned  Cattle 

d  .  .        Sheep 

Dlu.viic  D.iiik        .  .  .  'Mi 

DystMiery,  Sling  Flux,  or  Scourinj 

Hot        ....  21 

do.  do.  do.  Causes      22 

do.  do.  do.  Remedy    22 

F 

Fevr  Medicine  for  Swine        .  .    45 

Flv  I'l'W  ler  lor  Sheep       .            •  43 

Fool  Rji  ill  Micep         .           .  .40 

do.           do.       Tieaimcntof.  41 

G 

Car?»»t,  (or  the  Downfall  in  ihl  Udder 
01  ihe  Cow        ■  ■  '  ^S 

^o      Iodine  Ointment  for     .  .    25 

I 

Inflammation  ■  '  '  cJ\ 

20 


Mnnee      .... 
Mcaslc^i        .... 

do.       Remedy  f.ir 
Mercurial  (i.irgei  Ointment 

do         Wrish,  lor  She-p  Lice 
Milk  ►ever  (or  the  l)n>p) 
Mixiine  lor  .'lie  lloi  in  Sheep  . 

,lo.         do.  lio  No. 

Murrain,  (or  PcHilcnti..!  Fevei) 

&>.  di)  Drink  lor 

do.  do.       Tonic  U.  ink  for    M 

o 

Ointment  for  Sore  Teats  .  .    26 

P 

Phy-ic  •  •  •  •  12 

[•i-^'-'i"? g 

poisons         ...•<** 

Q 

Quinsy    . 


29 


R 

Red  Water.             .           .  .          2S 

do.          Recipe                    •  -4 

Rheumaiism.  (or  .Joint  Fehm)  .            15 


.lo.      Solpnur  Pui-ging  Drink    15 


llheum:itic  Drink 

on  EmJnocaiion 


3ti 


16 

30 
.    39 

40 


37    Rot,  in  Sheep 
7  do.  Symptoms  of 

do  R  rnedy 

scab,  in  Sheep   .           .           .           •  j| 

,lo               Rempdy     .            .  ''i 

do              Ml  d  Oininienl  for      .  « 

Son?  F.Hrs,  in  Swine                      .  « 

Stjioiiiiig                                     •           '  \\ 

d.>.      M(kI«  of  in'^ertini;           .  M 

do.       Hlisieriim  O  mm  't   .            .  « 

Stag'  e-p,  (or  Swi  inning  in  the  Head 

of  Citth)          .            •      ,     ■  .\a 

do          i\^.          do.          <  f  Sheep  J3 

Sion.'   in    the  Urinary  Pasa.iges,   (or 

Rind  e  )       .                       •           •  f J^ 

Strong  Physic  Drink  \' 

Swr».:— Di-^aseB  o*-                   .       ,,  •  ** 
SvfirjoMis  o    F.pi  iemic  Cold,  or  Ca- 

tairh,  or  lnlln<ii/..i                  •  *•* 
To  Drv  a  T'ow  of  h- r  Milk 


t  :f;h:S:;:n"  •     .       *    1^|Top;^a:.ceiuiiiineintheCow,..c» 

do  of  the  Lungs  .  .     13  |         Trea-meni  oi   Itnll  h-n-t   .  . 

do  of  the  Livc'r  .  .  16  '  Treatment  of  the  (U-w  oefore  and  du- 

do  do.        Tonic  Drink    17  1         ring  Calving  •  -" 

L  ^  .        ,, 

lAmbing  Season  .  .  ,    36  [  Yellows,  (or  Jaundice) 

Lambs— Di6ea..e*  of 


do. 


do. 


Drink 


at 


TBCB 

BUSINESS  MAN'S  AND  FARMER'S 

LAWYER, 

OR,  LEGAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  INSTRUCTOR. 

CONDENSED    FROM   THE    OPINIONS    OP   JUDGE    STORY, 

JUDGE    KENT,    AND    OTHERS,    OF    THE    HIGHEST 

AUTHORITY  IN  THE  LEGAL  PROFESSION. 


A    BILL    OP    EXCHANGE 

Is  an  Open  letter  of  request,  addressed  by  one  person  to 
a  second,  desiring  him  to  pay  a  sum  of  money  to  a  third, 
or  to  any  other  to  whom  a  third  person  shall  order  it  to 
be  p^id ;  or  it  may  be  payable  to  bearer. 

The  one  who  draws  the  bill  is  called  the  drawer ;  the 
one  to  whom  directed,  the  drawee ;  the  one  to  whom 
payable,  the  payee.  When  the  drawee  accepts  the  bill, 
he  is  called  the  acceptor ;  and  if  the  payee  (ihe  bill  being 
negotiable,)  should  endorse  it,  and  deliver  it  to  another, 
he  then  sustains  two  characters,  being  called  endorser  as 
well  as  payee,  wKile  the  party  to  whom  the  bill  is  «n- 
dorsed,  is  called  an  endorsee ;  and  should  this  endorsee 


8  LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR. 

endorse  it  to  another,  he  then  acquires  two  characters, 
that  of  first  endorsee,  and  second  endorser,  and  the  one 
to  whom  he  thus  transfers  the  bill,  is  called  a  second 
endorsee;  and  so  throughout  any  number  of  endorse- 
ments without  hmitation, 

Bills  are  divided  into  Foreign  Bills  of  Exchange,  and 
inland  Bills  of  Exchange. 

A  Bill  of  exchange  is  properly  denominated  a  foreign 
Bill,  when  it  is  drawn  in  one  state  or  country  upon  a 
foreign  state  or  country. 

So,  also,  Bills  drawn  upon  one  State  of  the  Ignited 
States  on  persons  i«  another,  are  considered  as  foreign 
Bills  of  Exchange. 

A  Bill  of  Exchange  is  properly  denominated  an  inland 
bill,  when  both  the  drawer  and  the  drawee  reside  in  the 
same  stale  or  country. 

A    PROMISSORY    NOTE 

Is  a  less  complicated  kind  of  security,  and  may  be  de- 
fined to  be  an  engagement  in  writing,  to  pay  a  certain 
sum  of  money  mentioned  in  it,  to  a  person  named,  or  to 
the  bearer  at  large. 

Promissory  Notes,  made  payable  to  order,  may  be  as- 
^gned  and  endorsed,  and  action  maintained  thereon  as 
on  inland  bills  of  exchange. 

The  signer  of  a  Promissory  Note  is  called  the  maker  ; 
whoever  has  the  legal  property  in  the  instrument  is 
called  the  holder ;  and  the  characters  of  first  and  second 
endorsers  and  endorsees  may  be  created  and  continued 
to  an  unlimited  extent,  as  in  a  Bill  of  Exchange. 


KJEGAL    INSTRUCTOR. 


ACCEPTANCE. 

An  Acceptance  is  an  engagement  to  pay  a  bill  of  ex- 
change according  to  the  nature  of  the  acceptance.  The 
circumstances  which  generally  occur  in  an  acceptance, 
are,  that  the  party  to  whom  the  bill  is  addressed  binds 
himself  to  the  payment,  after  the  bill  has  issued  before 
it  becomes  due,  and  according  to  its  tenor ;  and  this  is 
usually  done  by  either  subscribing  his  name,  or  writing 
the  words  accepts,  or  accepted,  A.  B.  But  a  man  may 
be  bound  as  acceptor  without  any  of  these  circum- 
stances. 

If  a  person  in  writing,  authorize  'another  to  draw  a 
bill  of  exchange,  and  stipulate  to  honor  the  bill,  and  the 
bill  be  afterwards  drawn,  and  taken  by  a  third  party, 
on  the  credit  of  that  letter,  it  is  equal  to  the  acceptance 
of  the  bill. 

By  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  State  of  New-York, 
no  person  within  this  State  can  be  charged  as  an  ac- 
ceptor on  a  bill  of  exchange,  unless  his  acceptance  be  in 
writing  ;  and  the  holder  may  require  the  acceptance  to 
be  upon  the  bill,  and  a  refusal  to  comply,  will  be  deemed 
a  refusal  to  accept. 

The  acceptor  of  a  bill  is  the  principal  debtor ;  he  can- 
not assume  the  attitude  of  a  surety,  though  only  an 
accommodation  acceptor,  and  the  equitable  doctrine  re- 
specting sureties  does  not  apply  to  him  ;  and  if  it  did,  it 
would  not  avail  him  in  a  suit  at  law  upon  a  written  ac- 
ceptance, for  which,  by  the  law  merchant,  there  is  a 
sufficient  consideration  implied. 

An  Acceptor  is  bound  to  know  the  drawer's  hand- 
writing, and  cannot  resist  payment  to  B.bonaJide  holder, 
though  the  bill  be  a  forgery. 


10  LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR.  % 

The  holder  of  a  bill  of  exchange,  on  non-acceptance, 
and  protest  and  notice  thereon,  has  an  immediate  right 
of  action  against  the  drawer,  and  does  not  acquire  fresh 
right  of  action  on  the  non-payment  of  the  bill  when  due. 

The  drawer  and  endorser  are  liable  to  an  action  by 
the  holder  immediately  after  the  bill  is  refused  accep- 
tance, and  before  it  is  payable,  on  giving  due  notice  of 
non-acceptance.  And  the  liability  is  not  discharged  by 
the  holder's  subsequently  protesting  the  bill  for  non- 
payment. 

Where  a  bill  has  been  protested  for  non-acceptance, 
and  due  notice  is  given  to  the  endorser,  it  is  no  objection 
that  the  demand  of  payment,  and  protest,  &c.,  were  a 
day  too  late,  as  they  are  not  essential  where  the  liability 
of  the  party  is  already  fixed. 

If  the  drawer  has  no  funds  in  the  drawee's  hands,  the 
payee  may  sue  immediately  after  non-acceptance,  with- 
out giving  notice,  <kc. 

After  presentment  and  non-acceptance  of  a  bill  of  ex- 
change, and  due  notice  given,  it  is  not  necessary  that  it 
should  be  presented  for  payment. 

Absence  of  the  drawee  from  home,  when  called  on 
for  acceptance,  is  not  a  refusal  to  accept. 


LBQAL   mSTRUCTOft.  11 


ACCOMMODATION  BILL  AND  NOTE. 

The  relative  rights  and  duties  of  parties  who  endorse 
a  promissory  note  for  the  accommodation  of  the  maker, 
are  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  a  business  note ;  so  that, 
due  notice  of  the  dishonor  of  such  accommodation  note 
having  been  given,  a  subsequent  endorser  who  pays  it, 
may  recover  of  a  prior  endorser  the  whole  amount  paid, 
and  not  merely  a  contribution,  as  in  the  case  of  sureties. 

If  one  of  two  joint  payors  and  endorsers  of  a  note, 
discounted  for  the  accommodation  of  the  maker,  die  be- 
fore the  note  falls  due,  his  representatives  are  not  liable 
to  the  holder  for  any  part  of  the  amount. 

It  is  always  understood  that  a  note  endorsed  for  the 
maker's  accommodation,  to  be  discounted  in  a  bank,  is 
to  be  renewed ;  but  a  renewal  is  not  an  extinguishment 
of  the  debt,  and  will  not  destroy  the  security  of  a  mort 
gage,  or  other  guaranty,  given  to  indemnify  the  en- 
dorser, when  the  original  note  was  discounted. 

Wherever  a  promissory  note,  endorsed  by  the  payee 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  maker,  is  negotiated  by 
the  latter  in  violation  of  an  agreement  between  them, 
the  holder  cannot  recover  against  such  endorser,  unless 
he  received  the  note  in  good  faith,  for  a  valuable  con- 
sideration, and  without  notice  of  the  arrangement. 

When  an  accommodation  note  is  drawn  for  $2500, 
and  the  payee  declines  to  endorse  it  for  the  whole 
amount,  but  directs  the  bank,  where  the  note  is  paya- 
ble, to  pay  on  it  $750 ;  such  note  is,  in  legal  elTect,  a 
note  for  $750,  and  may  be  declared  on  as  such- 


12^  L^AL  mSTRUCTCWfi. 


AGEiNT. 

The  rule  that  a  contract,  under  seal,  entered  into  by 
an  agent,  to  be  binding  upon  the  principal,  must,  on  its 
face,  purport  to  have  been  made  by  the  principal,  and 
to  have  been  executed  in  his  name,  and  not  in  the  name 
of  the  agent,  is  applied  in  all  its  rigor  when  the  validity 
of  the  instrument  in  question  depends  upon  the  annexa- 
tion of  a  seal ;  but^  it  seems,  in  less  formal  writings,  such 
as  the  evidence  of  ordinary  commercial  transactions,  a 
more  liberal  interpretation  prevails  ;  in  such  cases,  in 
^furtherance  of  the  public  policy  of  encouraging  trade,  if 
it  can,  upon  the  whole  instrument  be  collected,  that  the 
true  object  and  intent  were  to  bind  the  principal,  and 
not  merely  the  agent,  courts  of  justice  will  adopt  that 
construction  of  it,  however  it  may  be  expressed. 

A  person  may  draw,  accept,  or  endorse  a  bill  by  bis 
agent,  and  it  will  be  as  obligatory  upon  him  as  though 
it  was  done  by  his  own  hand  ;  but  the  agent  in  such  a 
case,  must  either  sign  the  name  of  the  principal  to  the 
bill,  or  it  must  appear  upon  the  face  of  the  bill  itself,  ii* 
some  way  or  another,  that  it  was  in  fact  done  for  him, 
or  the  principal  will  not  be  bound ;  the  particular  form 
of  the  execution  is  not  material  if  it  be  substantially 
done  in  the  name. of  the  principal. 

A  person  who  signs  a  note  in  the  name  of  another  ar 
his  attorney,  without  any  authority  for  that  purpose,  is 
personally  liable  on  the  note  to  the  party  who  accept* 
the  note  under  such  mistake  or  imposition. 

The  drawer  of  a  bill,  when  sued  by  the  payee,  may 
prove  in  defense  that  he  was  merely  an  agent,  and  not 
to  be  held  responsible ;  and  to  prove  this,  he  need  not 
show  a  special  agreement ;  a  general  understanding  that 
he  was  a  mere  agent,  may  be  sufficient. 


LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR, 


AGREEMENT. 

A  separate  agreement  with  regard  to  the  payment  of 
promissory  notes,  cannot  be  set  up  in  bar  of  an  action 
upon  them.     The  remedy  is  upon  the  agreement. 

The  non-performance  of  an  agreement  collateral  to 
the  execution  of  a  note,  furnishes  no  defense  to  an  action 
on  the  note.  The  remedy  is  by  action  for  the  breach  of 
the  collateral  agreement,  or  recision  of  the  principal 
contract. 

A  written  agreement  by  the  payee  of  a  note,  with  the 
maker,  that  if  it  should  not  be  convenient  for  the  maker 
to  pay  the  note  at  maturity,  he  .would  wait  his  conveni- 
ence, cannot  be  pleaded  in  bar  to  an  action  on  the  note, 
with  an  averment  that  it  had  not  been  convenient  to 
pay  the  same.  The  defendant's  remedy,  if  he  has  suf- 
fered injury,  is  on  the  contract. 

If  an  action  by  the  holder  against  the  endorser  of  a 
note,  the  drawer  cannot  prove  that  the  plaintiff  agreed 
not  to  hold  the  defendant  responsible  for  his  endorse- 
ment. 

Parol  evidence  is  admissible  on  the  part  of  an  en- 
dorser, to  show  a  special  agreement  between  him  and 
the  endorsee.,  where  a  promiser's  note  was  endorsed,  that 
the  latter  should  sue  the  maker,  and  if  he  could  not  ob- 
tain payment,  that  then  the  endorser  should  be  liable. 

A  covenant  to  deliver  up  a  promissory  note  is  a  good 
bar  to  an  action  on  the  note. 

Where  there  is  a  contract  of  hiring  for  a  definite  time, 


^  LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR. 

at  a  certain  rate  per  day,  and  a  part  of  the  time  only 
having  elapsed,  the  parties  settle  the  amount  of  the 
wages  which  had  been  earned,  and  the  hirer  gives  his 
note  to  the  servant  for  the  amount ;  in  an  action  on  the 
note,  it  is  no  defense  that  the  payee  had  left  the  maker's 
service  before  the  expiration  of  the  time  for  which  he 
had  been  generally  hired  ;  although  had  there  been  no 
subsequent  modification  of  the  agreement,  he  could  not 
have  recovered  wages  until  he  had  served  the  whol« 
period  agreed  on. 

An  agreement  between  two  endorsers  that  they  will 
divide  the  loss  between  them,  is  a  contract,  and  founded 
on  a  sufficient  consideration  ;  and,  being  a  collateral 
contract  by  parol,  parol  evidence  may  be  given  to 
prove  it. 

A  promissory  note,  taken  by  express  agreement,  in 
payment  of  a  judgment,  is  an  extinguishment  of  the 
preceding  debt. 

Any  agreement  between  the  holder  and  drawer  of  a 
bill  which  shall  suspend  the  right  of  the  holder  to  prose- 
cute on  the  bill,  will  discharge  an  endorser. 

Where  the  consideration  of  a  promissory  note  is  an 
agreement  by  the  payee  to  do  what  afterwards  becomes 
impossible  to  be  done  by  him,  an  action  cannot  be  sus- 
tained upon  such  note  by  reason  of  a  failure,  of  consider- 
ation. 


LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR.  15 


ALTERATION. 

An  alteration  of  an  instrument  is  something  by  which 
its  meaning  or  language  is  changed,  in  a  material  or 
immaterial  particular.  If  what  is  written  upon  or 
erased  from  the  paper  containing  an  instrument,  have 
no  tendency  to  produce  this  result,  nor  mislead  any  per- 
son, it  will  not  be  an  alteration. 

The  alteration  of  an  instrument  does  not  necessarily 
avoid  it ;  the  alteration  may  have  been  made  before  de- 
livery, or  by  consent  of  parties,  in  which  case  the  validity 
is  not  affected. 

The  holder  of  a  bill  has  no  right  to  make  an  altera- 
tion in  it  to  correct  a  mistake,  unless  to  make  the  instru- 
ment conform  to  what  all  parties  to  it  agreed,  or  in- 
tended it  should  be. 

If  a  note  be  altered  in  a  material  point,  without  the 
consent  of  the  party  to  be  affected  by  it,  it  is  void  as  to 
such  party,  and  this  rule  apphes  to  an  alteration 
changing  the  liability  of  an  endorser  from  a  conditional 
to  an  absolute  engagement 

The  interlineation  of  the  words  "or  bearer,"  in  a  due- 
bill,  is  a  material  alteration,  and  if  without  authority, 
will  vitiate  it. 

The  addition  of  the  words,  "with  interest  from  the 
date,"  is  a  material  alteration  of  a  promissory  note,  and 
avoids  it. 

The  alteration  of  a  note  from  "  I  promise,"  to  "  Wc 
promise,"  is  not  a  material  alteration,  and  does  not  avoid 
the  note. 


16  LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR. 


AFFIDAVITS  AND  DEPOSITIONS. 

A  deposition  is  the  written  testimony  of  a  witness 
under  oath.  An  affidavit  is  simply  an  oath  in  writing 
subscribed  by  the  party  making  the  same,  and  sworn  or 
affirmed  to  before  some  proper  person. 

The  following  is  the  usual  form : 

County  of  S ,  ss. 

J.  S.,  of  said  city  and  county,  grocer,  being  duly  sworn, 
doth  depose  and  say,  that  on  the  twentieth  day  of  April, 
instant,  deponent  was  walking  near  the  hour  of  12 
o'clock,  noon — deponent  saw  the  driver  of  Smith's  omni- 
bus. No.  — ,  strike  and  beat  with  his  whip,  one  J.  S.  per- 
sonally known  to  deponent. 

J.  S. 
Sworn  to  before  me,  this  21st  day  of  April,  1850. 

LEWIS  CLARK, 

Justice  of  the  Peace. 


An  affidavit  should  set  forth  nothing  but  facts,  be- 
cause, in  strictness  of  law,  matters  of  inference  or  argu- 
ment are  not  allowed. 

However,  matters  of  hearsay  or  information,  and 
which  the  deponent  believes  to  be  true,  but  cannot  assert 
positively  of  his  own  knowledge,  may  be  set  forth  as 
follows : 

"  And  deponent  further  saith  that  he  has  been  in- 
formed, and  verily  believes  to  be  true,  ifec.  (fcc. 

Another  mode  of  affidavit  is  as  follows  : 

On  the  25th  day  of  June,  in  the  year  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  forty,  [then  go  on  and  make  state- 


LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR.  17 

ment  of  the  particular  matter  in  precise  and  careful  lan- 
guage, in  the  ordinary  style  of  making  a  written  state- 
ment;  sign  your  name  to  it;  go  before  a  commissioner 
of  deeds,  judge,  or  any  proper  person  :  he  will  administer 
the  oath  and  add  the  following  certificates :] 

^tate  of ,    i 

and  County  of  \  ^^' 

On  this  1st  day  of  July,  in  the  year  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  forty,  before  me,  personally  appeared 
[msert  the  name  of  the  party  signing  the  statement], 
who,  being  by  me  duly  sworn,  did  depose  and  say,  that 
he  has  read  [or  '-heard  read,"  as  the  case  may  be]  the 
foregoing  [if  this  certificate  is  put  on  the  back  of  the 
statement,  say  "within;"  if  attached,  say  "annexed"] 
statement,  and  knows  the  contents  thereof,  and  that  the 
same  is  true,  of  his  own  knowledge,*  except  as  to  the 
matters  which  are  therein  stated  to  be  on  the  informa- 
tion or  belief  of  the  said  [insert  name  of  subscriber]  the 
subscriber  aforesaid  ;  and  as  to  these  matters,  he  believes 
it  to  be  true. 

JOHN  R.  GRAFT. 

Justice  of  the  Peace. 

*  Should  the  statement  set  forth  nothing  but  what  is  within  the 
knowledge  of  the  subscriber,  this  clause,  from  the  word  "except** 
to  the  conclusion,  may  be  omitted. 


18  LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR. 


BILL  OF  LADING. 

Shipped  by  A.  B..  on  board  the  ship  called  the  Patrick 
Henry,  C.  D.,  master,  now  in  the  port  of  New  York,  and 
bound  for  Liverpool,  to  say:  [here  describe  the  goods,] 
being  in  good  order  and  well  conditioned,  marked  and 
numbered  as  in  the  margin,  and  to  be  delivered  in  the 
like  good  order  and  condition  (danger  of  the  seas  ex- 
cepted), unto  E.  F.,  or  to  his  assigns,  he  or  they  paying 
freight  for  the  said  goods  and  the  primage  and  average 
accustomed.  In  witness  whereof,  I,  the  said  master, 
have  affirmed  to  three  Bills  of  Lading,  of  this  tenor  and 
date  ;  one  of  which  being  accomplished,  the  others  stand 
void. 

Dated  in  New  York,  the  1st  day  of  January,  1850. 
(Contents  unknown.)  J.  D.  B., 

Master. 


MARRIAGE  CERTIFICATE. 

This  is  to  certify,  that  A.  B.  and  C.  D.  were,  with 
their  mutual  consent,  lawfully  joined  together  in  holy 
matrimony,  which  was  solemnized  by  me,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  credible  witnesses. 

Given  at ,  this day  of ,  in  the  year  of 

our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  — . 

E.  F. 


i 


LEGAL  INSTRUCTOR.  19 


LEGAL  INTEREST  TABLE. 

Exhibiting  the  legal  rates  of  interest  allowed  in  the  dif- 
ferent States  and  Territories  within  the  United 
States,  with  the  punishment  inflicted  for  usury  in 
each  State. 

Maine — Six  per  cent.  ;  forfeit  of  the  claim  for  usury. 

New  Hampshire — Six  per  cent.  ;  forfeit  of  thrice  the 
amount  unlawfully  taken. 

Vermont — Six  per  cent.  ;  recovery  in  an  action,  witii 
costs.  ' 

Massachusetts — Six  'per  cent. ;  forfeit  of  thrice  tffe 
usury. 

Rhode  Island — Six  per  cent. ;  forfeit  of  the  usury  and 
interest  on  the  debt. 

Connecticut — Six  per  cent.  ;  forfeit  of  the  whole  debt. 

New  York — Seven  per  cent. ;  usurious  contracts  void. 

New  Jersey — Six  per  cent. ;  forfeit  of  the  whole  debt. 

Pennsylvania — Six  per  cent. ;  forfeit  of  the  whole 
debt. 

Maryland — Six,  and  on  tobacco  contracts  eight  per 
cent. ;  usurious  contracts  void. 

Virginia — Six  per  cent. ;  forfeit  double  the  usury 
taken. 

North  Carohna — Six  per  cent. ;  contracts  for  usury 
void,  and  forfeit  double  the  usury. 

South  Carolina — Seven  per  cent. ;  forfeit  of  interest 
and  premium  taken,  with  costs  to  debtors. 

Georgia — Eight  per  cent.  ;  forfeit  three  times  the 
usury,  and  contract  void. 

Alabama— Eight  per  cent. ;  forfeit  interest  and  usury. 

Mississippi — Eight  per  cent.,  by  agreement,  as  high 
as  ten  per  cent. ;  forfeit  the  usury. 


30  LEGAL  INSTRUCTOR. 

Louisiana — Five  per  cent.,  bank  interest  six,  and  con- 
ventional as  high  as  ten  ;  beyond  that,  contract  void. 

Tennessee — Six  per  cent.;  usurious  contracts  void. 

Kentucky — Six  per  cent. ;  usury  recoverable  with 
costs. 

Ohio — Six  per  cent.,  on  written  agreements  may 
go  as  high  as  ten  ;  beyond  this,  contract  void. 

Indiana — Six  per  cent. ;  a  fine  of  double  the  excess. 

Illinois — Six  per  cent.  ;  forfeit  threefold  the  amount 
of  the  whole  interest. 

Missouri — Six  per  cent.,  by  agreement  as  high  as 
ten ;  beyond  this,  forfeit  of  interest  due  and  usury 
taken. 

Michigan — Seven  per  cent. ;  forfeit  usury  and  one 
fourth  the  debt. 

Arkansas — Six  per  cent.,  by  agreement  as  high  as  ten ; 
forfeit  usury,  and  contract  void. 

'  Florida — Eight  per  cent. ;  forfeit  interest  and  usury, 
^Wisconsin — Seven  per  cent.,  by  contract,  any  amount 
agreed  upon  by  the  parties. 

Iowa — Seven  per  cent.,  by  agreement  as  high  as 
twelve ;  forfeit  three  times  the  excess. 

In  England  and  France,  legal  interest  is  five  per  cent ; 
in  Ireland  six. 


LEGAL    INSTRUCTOR.  21 


BILL  OF  EXCHANGE. 

185 

Exchange  for  $5,000. 

Ten  days  after  sight,  pay  to  the  order 

of  C.  M.  Hines,  Five  Thousand  Dollars,  value  received, 

and  charge  to  aocount  of 

JOSEPH  GREEN. 
To  L.  MORRIS, 

New  Rochelle,  N.  Y. 


'      SET  OP  BEXS  OP  EXCHANGE. 

185 

Exchange  for  $10,000. 

Thirty  days  after  sight  of  this  m^^  first 
of  Exchange,  (second  and  third  unpaid,)  pay  to  the  order 
of  F.  M.  Hines,  Ten  Thousand  Dollars,  value  received, 
and  charge  the  same  to  account  of 

GEORGE  GREEN. 
To  Messrs.  SHIPMAN  &  Co., 
Louisville,  Ky. 


22  LEGAL    INSTRUCTOR. 


NOTES  NEGOTIABLE. 

On  Time. 

$150  00.  P ,  Oct.  8,  185  . 

Four  months  from  date,  for  value  received, 
I  promise  to  pay  B.  Mason,  or  order,  one  hundred  and 
fifty  dollars.  -  JOHN  BROWN. 

Notes  on  time  are  liable  to  interest  after  they  become 
due,  whether  demand  is  made  for  their  payment  or  not. 


On  Demand. 

$50  00.  P 5  Oct.  8,  185  . 

On  demand,  for  value  received,  I  promise  to 
pay  James  Gluirk,  or  order,  fifty  dollars. 

P.  O.  SMITH. 

Notes  on  demand  are  liable  to  interest  from  the  time 
demand  is  made  until  the  payment  of  them. 


Payable  at  Bank. 

$500  00.  P ,  Oct.  8,  185  . 

Ninety  days  from  date,  for  value  received, 
I  promise  to  pay  James  Galen,  or  order,  five  hundred 
dollars  at  the  Chester  County  Bank. 

MOSES  SHARP. 


LEGAL    INSTRUCTOR.  23 

Payable  by  Installments. 

$200  00.  P ,  Oct.  8,  185  . 

For  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  Peter 
Smith,  or  order,  two  hundred  dollars,  in  the  following 
manner  :  fifty  dollars  in  two  months,  fifty  dollars  in  six 
months,  and  one  hundred  dollars  in  one  year  from  date, 
with  interest. 

C.  WELDING. 


NOTES  NOT  NEGOTIABLE. 

A  note  not  negotiable,  may  be  transferred  by  endorse- 
ment, but  the  endorsee  is  not  thereby  vested  with  power 
to  commence  suit  for  its  payment  in  his  own  name,  as 
in  case  of  a  negotiable  note.  To  enforce  the  collection 
of  this  kind  of  notes  the  holder  must  sue  in  the  name  of 
the  payee. 

On   Time. 

$45  00.  K ,  Oct.  8,  185  . 

Thirty  days  from  date,  for  value  received,  I 
promise  to  pay  James  B.  Haight,  forty-five  dollars. 

WM.  ASHTON. 


24  LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR. 

On  TlmGj  icith  Interest. 

$100  00.  K ,  Oct.  8,  185  . 

One  month  from  date,  for  value  received, 
I  promise  to  pay  James  Bird,  one  hundred  dollars  with 
interest. 

GEO.  BLIGHT. 


Payable  to  Tico, 

$600  00.  •  K ,  Oct.  8,  185  . 

On  demand,  for  value  received,  I  promise 
to  pay  John  M.  Jordan  and  James  Githens,  six  hundred 
dollars. 

WM.  D.  LONG. 


Made  by  Two. 

$200  00.  .K ,  Oct.  8.  185  . 

On  demand,  for  value  received,  we  severally 
and  jointly  promise  to  pay  Henry  Baker,  two  hundred 
dollars. 

L.  K,  CHILDS, 
C.  C.  CHILDS. 

Either  of  the  signers  to  a  note  of  this  form  are  respon- 
sible for  its  payment. 


LEGAL  INSTRUCTOR.  26 


DUE  BILLS. 

A  due  bill  is  a  mere  pledge  to  pay  a  certain  amount 
of  money,  or  other  property,  specified  therein,  in  consi- 
deration of  an  equivalent  received. 

FORMS    FOR    DUE    BILLS. 

Chsh  on  Demand. 

$15  00.  K ,  Nov.  8,  185  . 

Due  David  Birkey,  fifteen  dollars,  on 

F.  WHITE. 


Cash  on  Time. 


demand. 


$1(>  00.  K ,  Nov.  8,  185  . 

ibush,  ten  dolla 

H.  W.  FISH. 


Due  James  A.  Quackenbush,  ten  dollars', 
three  months  from  date. 


Payable  in   Wood. 

$20  00.  K ,  Nov.  8,  185  . 

Due  James  D.  Lamb,  twenty   dollars, 
payable  in  wood,  next  February,  at  the  current  price. 

T.  W.  BOYD. 


26  LEGAL  INSTRUCTOR. 

Payable  in   Work. 

$8  00.  K ,  Nov.  8,  185  . 

Due  Hiram  L.  Wharton,  eight  dollars, 

payable  in  work. 

^  ^  F.  K.  LAIGHT. 


BONDS. 

Bonds  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  penal.  A  simple 
bond  is  an  obligation  to  pay  a  certain  amount  of  money, 
or  to  perform,  or  not  to  perform,  some  specified  act. 

FORM    OF    A    SIMPLE    BOND. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  B.  L.,  of 
Coutsville,  am  holden  and  firmly  bound  to  K.  M.,  of 

M ,  in  the  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars,  to  be  paid 

to  the  said  K.  M.,  or  his  certain  attorney,  executors,  or 
administrators,  or  assigns ;  for  which  payment  well  and 
truly  to  be  made,  I  bind  myself,  my  heirs,  executors,  and 
administrators,  firmly,  by  these  presents. 

Signed  with  my  hand,  sealed  with  mv  seal,  and  dated 
Oct.  8,  185  .  B.  LEECH,  (l.  s.) 

Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered,  ^ 
in  the  presence  of  T.  Sutton.       \ 


LEGAL    INSTRUCTOR.  27 


ORDERS. 
For  Money, 

$12  00.  K ,  Oct.  8,  185  . 

Messrs.  Hines  &  Davis. 

Please  pay  the  bearer  twelve  dollars, 
and  charge  the  same  to  the  account  of 

JOSEPH  GREEN. 


Fcyr  Merchandize, 

$10  00.  K ,  Oct.  8,  185  . 

Messrs.  Hines  &  Davis. 

Gents. :  Please  let  the  bearer  have  ten 
dolllars  in  merchandise,  and  place  the  same  to  the  ac- 
count of  Yours,  &c. 


T.  L.  MORRia 


K ,  Oct.  8,  185  . 

Please  let  Mr.  F.  M.  Hines  have  such  goods  as  he 
may  wish,  and  charge  to  account  of 

GEORGE  GREEN. 
To  Messrs.  SHIPMAN  &  Co. 

If  S.  (fe  Co.,  resided  in  another  town  from  the  one  in 
which  the  order  is  dated,  the  name  of  the  town  in  which 
they  reside  should  be  written  under  their  names. 


28 


LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR. 


DRAFTS. 
Drafts  at   Sight, 

$150  00.  K ,  Oct.  8,  185  . 

At  sight,  pa>  to  the  order  of  B.  B.  Briggs,  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  dollars,  value  received,  and  charge  the 
same  to  the  account  of 

F.  M.  HINES. 
7o  W.  N.  LAWSON, 

Orange  Co. 


Thirty  Days  after  Date. 

$1,000  00.  K ,  Oct.  8,  185  . 

Thirty  days  after  date,  pay  to  the  order 
of  J.  S.  Turney,  one  thousand  dollars,  and  place  the 
same  to  the  account  of 

J.  HUTCHINS. 
To  PAUL  NORRIS, 

Baltimore,  Md. 


LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR,  29 


LEASES. 

A  lease  is  the  conveyance  of  lands  for  one  or  more 
years,  or  at  will,  in  consideration  of  a  return  of  rent  or 
other  recompense. 

A  lease  not  in  writing  may  be  valid  for  a  short  time, 
but  it  will  prevent  dispute,  and  is  better  to  be  in  writing. 

FORMS    OP    A    LEASE. 

This  indenture,  made  the  first  day  of  January,  in  the 
year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty,  between  L. 

M,,  in  the  town  of ,  county  of ,  and  State 

of ,  of  the  first  part,  and  M.  O.,  of  the  same 

place,  of  the  second  part,  witnesseth,  that  the  said  party 
of  the  first  part  has  let.  and  by  these  presents  does 
grant,  demise,  and  let,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part  [here  describe  premises ;  if  land  say,  "all  that 
certain  piece  or  parcel  of  land  known,"  (fcc,  or,  "bounded 
and  described  as  follows,  to  wit :"]  with  the  appurte- 
nances, for  the  term  of  five  years,  from  the  first  day  of 
May,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty,  at  the 
yearly  rent  or  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars,  to  be  paid  in 
equal  half-yearly  payments.  And  it  is  agreed  that  if 
any  rent  shall  be  due  and  unpaid,  or  if  default  shall  be 
made  in  any  of  the  covenants  herein  contained,  then  it 
shall  be  lawful  for  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  to  re- 
enter the  said  premises,  or  to  destrain  for  any  rent  tliat 
may  remain  due  thereon.  And  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part  does  hereby  covenant  to  pay  to  tbe  said 
party  of  the  first  part,  the  said  yearly  rent  as  herein  spe- 
cified, and  that,  at  the  expiration  of  the  said  term,  the 
said  party  of  the  second  part  will  quit  and  surrender  the 
premises  hereby  demised,  in  as  good  state  and  condition 


30  LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR. 

as  reasonable  use  and  wear  thereof  will  permit,  dannages 
by  the  elements  excepted.  And  the  said  party  of  the 
first  part,  does  covenant  that  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part,  on  paying  the  said  yearly  rent,  and  performing  the 
covenants  aforesaid,  shall  and  may  peaceably  and  qui 
etly  have,  hold,  and  enjoy,  the  said  demised  premises  foi 
the  term  aforesaid. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  parties  to  these  presents  have 
hereunto  set  their  hands  and  seals,  the  day  and  year  first 
above  written. 


Sealed  and  delivered  in  ^ 
the  presence  of  T.  E.  B.      S 


L.  M.  (l.s.^, 
M.  O.  (l.s.) 


MARRIAGE  SETTLEMENTS. 

A  Jointure  Settled  on  an  intended   Wife. 

This  indenture,  made  and  agreed  upon  between  L.  E. 

of ,  and  P.  T.  of ,  on  the  one  part,  and  O.  E.  ot 

,  widow,  on  the  other  part,  witnesseth,  that  the  said 

L.  E.,  in  consideration  of  a  marriage  to  be  had  and 
solemnized  between  him  and  the  said  O.  E.,  does,  for 
himself,  his  heirs,  and  assigns,  covenant,  grant,  and 
agree,  to  and  with  the  said  P.  T.,  his  heirs  and  assigns, 
shall  and  will  fprevcr  hersafter  stand  seized  of  and  in 
that  tract  of  land  situate  in ,  whereof  he  is  now  ac- 
tually and  lawfully  seized  in  fee  simple,  to  the  uses  fol- 
lowing, that  is  to  say,  to  the  use  of  the  said  L.  E.,  for 
and  during  the  termof  liis  natural  life,  without  impeach- 
ment of  waste,  and  after  his  said  marriage  with  the  said 
O.  E..   and  after  his  decease,  to  her  use,  so  long  as  she 


LEGAL    INSTRUCTOR.  3| 

shall  remain  his  widow,  and  unmarried,  without  im 
peachment  of  waste  fo,  her  .jointure,  and  in  heu  and 
satLsfaclion  of  her  whole.dower  in  his  estate,  and  after 
Ins  decease,  and  the  expiration  of  her  said  estate,  to  the 
use  ol  Ins  hens  and  assigns  forever. 

And  the  said  L.  R,  in  consideration  of  the  premises 
and  one  dohar  paid,  does,  for  himself,  his  heirs,  execu- 
tors, and  admmistrators,  covenant  and   agree  with  the 
said  P.  T.,  brother  to  the  said  O.  E.,  his  executors  and 
admmistrators,  that  said  marriage  being  solemnized,  he 
the  said  L.  E.,  will  carefully,  and  according  to  his  best 
judgment,  husband,  manage,   and   preserve   her  estate 
which  she  now  has,  and  which  during  the  said  marriao-e 
she  may  receive  by  descent,  or  the  statute  of  distribu- 
tions from   her  relations  ;  and  take  and  recover  to  his 
own   use,  only  the  interest  and   income  thereof,  during 
the  said  marriage,  and  at  the  expiration  thereof  by  his 
will  or  otherwise,  he  the  said  L.  E.,  will  leave  secured  to 
her,  1^  she  survives  him,  or  to  her  heirs,  if  he  shall  sur- 
vive her,  all  her  said  estate,  except  the  said  interest  and 
income  thereof  during  the  said   marriage,  and  except 
such   parts  of  her  said   estate  as  shall  be  unavoidably 
consunied  or  destroyed,  or  be  worn  out  in  common  use 
or  lost  by  the  insolvency  of  those  to  whom  the  same,  or 
any  part  thereof,  shall  be  lent  on  interest;  and  that  the 
^aid  U.  E.,  at  any  time  in  her  life-time,  shall  have  power 
by  her  appointment  testamentary,  to  name   the  person 
or  persons^  who  shall  be  entitled  to  have  her  said  estate 
alter  her  decease ;  and   that,   by  virtue  thereof,  it  shall 
he  lawful  for  such  person  or  persons  to  receive  and  hold 
the  same.     And  the  said  O.  E.,  in  consideration  of  the 
premises    and  one  dollar,  paid   her  by  the  said  L.  E., 
does,  for  herself,  her  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators, 
covenant  and  agree  with  him,  the  said  L.  E.,  that  the 
said  land,  so  assigned  to  her,  shall  be  in  full  satisfaction 
or  her  dower  in  his  estate,  and  shall  bar  her  from  claim- 
ing the  same,  if  she  shall  survive  after  the  said  marriao-e  • 
and  further,  that  if  the  said  marriage  be  had,  and  she 


32  LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR. 

survive  him,  she  will  not  claim  any  share  in  his  personal 
estate,  but  her  retaining  her  own  estate,  as  aforesaid, 
shall  be  a  bar  to  her  claim  to,  any  part  of  his  personal 
estate  after  his  decease,  unless  some  part  thereof  be 
given  to  her  by  his  will,  or  some  act  of  his  done  after 
the  execution  hereof. 

In  witness,  (fcc. 


FORM  OF  A  WILL. 


In  the  name  of  God,  Amen.     I,  O.  B.,  of  the  town  of 
-,  in  the  county  of ,  and  State  of 


being  of  sound  mind  and  memory  (blessed  be  Almighty 
God  for  the  same),  do  make  and  publish  this  my  last 
will  and  testament. 

I  give  and  bequeath  to  my  sons  Jacob  and  Oren,  eight 
hundred  dollars  each,  if  they  shall  have  attained  the  age 
<»f  twenty-one  years  before  my  decease,  but  if  they  shall 
be  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  at  my  decease,  then  I 
fX'we  to  them  one  thousand  dollars  each,  the  last  men- 
tioned sum  to  be  in  place  of  the  first  mentioned. 

I  give  and  bequeath  to  my  beloved  wife  Susan,  all  my 
household  furniture  and  all  the  rest  of  my  personal  pro- 
perty, after  paying  from  the  same  the  several  legacies 
already  named,  to  be  hers  for  ever ;  but  if  there  should 
not  be  at  my  decease  sufficient  personal  property  to  pay 
the  aforesaid  legacies,  then  so  much  of  my  real  estate 
shall  be  sold  as  will  raise  sufficient  money  to  pay  the 
same. 

1  also  give,  devise,  and  bequeath,  to  my  beloved  wife 
Susan,  all  the  rest  and  residue  of  my  real  estate  as  long 
as  she  shall  remain  unmarried,  and  my  widow,  but  on 
her  decease  or  marriage,  the  remainder  thereof  I  give 


LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR.  33 

and  devise  to  my  said  cfiildien  and  their  heirs,  respec- 
tively, to  be  divided  in  equal  shares  between  them. 

I  do  nominate  and  appoint  my  beloved  wife  Susan  to 
be  the  sole  executrix  of  this  my  last  will  and  testament. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  hereunto  set  my  hand  and 
seal,  and  publish  and  decree  this  to  be  my  last  will  and 
testament  in  presence  of  the  witnesses  named  below, 
this day  of ,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord,  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and . 

O.  B.  (l.  s.) 

Signed,  sealed,  declared,  and  published  by  the  said 
O.  B.,  as  and  for  his  last  will  and  testament,  in  presence 
of  us,  who,  at  his  request  and  in  his  presence,  and  in 
presence  of  each  other,  have  subscribed  our  names  as 
witnesses  hereto. 

C.  D.,  residing  at ,  in county. 

P.  G.,  residing  at ,  in county. 


INDENTURE  OF  APPRENTICESHIP. 

This  indenture,  made  this  1st  day  of  October,  in  the 
year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty,  between  O. 

S.,  of  Lyme,  of  the  Srate  of ,  father  of  E.  li,  a 

minor  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  of  the  one 
part,  and  A.  K.  of  Newport,  in  the  aforesaid  State,  of  the 
other  part,  witnesseth  : 

That  the  said  O.  S.  has  placed  and  bound  his  son,  E. 
P.,  an  apprentice  to  the  said  A.  K.,  to  be  instructed  in 
the  art,  mystery  of  trade,  and  occupation  of  shoefnaking, 
which  the  said  A.  K.  now  uses,  and  to  live  with  him, 
and  serve  him  as  an  apprentice,  from  the  date  hereof, 
until  he,  the  said  E.  P.,  shall  arrive  at  the  age  of  twenty- 


34  LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR. 

one  years,  which  will  be  on  the day  of ,  A.  D. 

;  all  which  time  the  said  E.  B.  as  an  apprentice, 

shall  faithfully  serve,  and  be  just  and  true  to  him,  the 
said  A.  K.,  as  his  master ;  his  secrets  he  shall  keep,  and 
his  lawful  commands  obey  ;  he  shall  do  no  injury  to  his 
master,  in  his  person,  family,  or  property,  nor  suffer  it  to 
be  done  by  others  ;  he  shall  not  embezzle  or  waste  his 
master's  property,  nor  lend  it  without  his  consent;  he 
shall  not  play  at  unlawful  games,  nor  frequent  taverns 
or  tippling-houses ;  he  shall  not  contract  marriage,  nor 
at  any  time  leave  his  master's  service  without  his  con- 
sent ;  but  in  all  things,  as  a  good  and  faithful  apprentice, 
he  shall  and  will  behave  himself  to  his  said  master, 
during  the  time  aforesaid.  And  the  said  A.  K.,  on  his 
part,  in  consideration  of  the  premises,  covenants  and 
agrees  with  the  said  father  and  son,  each  by  himself,  re- 
spectively and  jointly,  to  teach  and  instruct  the  said  E. 
R,  as  his  apprentice,  or  otherwise  cause  him  to  be  well 
and  sufficiently  instructed  and  taught,  in  the  art,  mys- 
tery, trade,  and  occupation  of  shoemaking,  in  the  best 
manner  in  his  power,  and  to  teach  and  instruct,  or  cause 
him  to  be  taught  and  instructed,  to  read,  to  write,  and 
to  cipher  as  far  as  the  first  four  rules  of  arithmetic  ;  to 
educate  him  in  the  principles  of  religion  and  virtue,  and 
train  him  to  habits  of  faithfulness,  industry,  and  econ- 
omy. 


And  the  said  master  shall  and  will  provide  for  the 
said  apprentice,  meat,  drink,  washing,  lodging,  and  ap- 
parel, in  winter  and  suuuner,  on  common  and  holy  days  ; 
and  all  necessaries,  in  sickness  and  in  health,  proper  and 
convenient  for  an  apprentice,  during  the  time  of  his  said 
apprenticeship  ;  and  at  the  expiration  thereof,  shall  and 
will  give  to  said  apprentice — [here  insert  such  articles  as 
may  be  agreed  upon  between  the  parties]. 


In  witness  whereof,  the  parties  have  hereunto  set  their 


LEGAL    INSTRUCTOR.  35 

hands  and  seals,  as  well  as  to  a  duplicate  of  the  same 
tenor  and  date. 

O.  S.  (l.  s.) 
E.  B.  (l.  s.) 
A.  K.  (l.  s.) 
Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered,  in    ) 
the  presence  of  M.  O.  > 

M.  L.  ) 

Duplicates  should  be  issued  alike  in  all  of  their  parts. 

An  indenture  by  a  guardian  of  his  ward  may  be  in 
the  same  form  as  the  above,  only  changing  the  word 
father  for  guardian.  An  indenture  of  this  form  will  bind 
the  father  or  guardian  to  a  faithful  performance  of  the 
covenant  on  the  part  of  the  apprentice,  and  will  subject 
him  to  danaages  for  his  misconduct  or  non-performance. 
When  the  person  binding  an  apprentice  does  not  intend 
to  make  himseif  liable  on  the  indenture,  but  merely  to 
give  the  power  of  a  master  over  the  apprentice,  it  may 
be  so  specified. 


36  LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR. 


DEEDS. 

All  writings  under  the  seal  are  deeds,  but  in  common 
acceptation  it  is  an  instrument  conveying  lands. 

A  deed  must  be  for  a  consideration. 

The  consideration  may  be  money,  goods,  services,  or 
marriage.  Or  the  consideration  may  be  love,  natural 
affection,  or  connection  by  blood. 

A  deed  must  be  written  oi  printed.  There  must  be 
sufficient  parties. 

There  should  be  two  witnesses  to  a  deed  in  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  Penn- 
sylvania, Ohio,  Georgia,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Delaware, 
Tennessee,  and  North  and  South  Carohna.  In  the 
other  States  one  witness  will  answer. 

It  is  required  in  some  of  the  States,  that  the  wife  sign 
the  deed,  to  free  the  estate  from  her  right  of  dower. 

There  should  be  a  seal  of  wax  or  wafer  to  each  sig- 
nature of  a  party  to  a  deed. 

In  some  of  the  States,  a  scroll  of  ink  with  a  pen  is  of 
the  same  vahdity  as  a  seal ;  but  there  must  be  evidence 
of  an  intention  to  substitute  the  scroll  for  a  seal. 

In  Vermont,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut,  deeds  are 
recorded  by  the  town  clerks  of  the  several  towns  in 
which  the  lands  lie.  In  other  States  they  are  recorded 
by  recordino:  officers,  acting  under  various  names. 

In  New  Ham[)shire  and  Vermont  a  deed  may  be  put 
on  record  before  it  is  acknowledged,  but  it  will  be  avail- 
able only  against  the  claims  of  creditors  and  subsequent 
purchasers  for  sixty  days. 

In  most  of  the  States  a  deed  may  be  good  against  the 
grantor  and  his  heirs,  without  being  acknowledged  or 


LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR.  37 

recorded,  but  they  will  not  avail  against  the  attachment 
of  a  creditor,  or  the  rights  of  a  subsequent  purchaser. 

It  is  not  generally  safe  to  depart  from  accustomed 
usages  in  the  wording  of  deeds. 


Form  of  a  Quit- Claim  Deed. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  we,  O.  S.,  of, 
(fcc,  and  D.,  the  wife  of  the  said  N.,  in  consideration  of 

the  sum  of ,  to  us  in  hand  paid  by  O.  P.,  of,  (fee, 

the  receipt  whereof  we  do  hereby  acknowledge,  have 
bargained,  sold,  and  quit-claimed,  and  by  these  presents 
do  bargain,  sell,  and  quit-claim,  unto  the  said  O.  P.,  and 
to  his  heirs  and  assigns  for  ever,  all  our,  and  each  of  our 
right,  title,  interest,  estate,  claim,  and  demand,  both  at 
law  and  iri  equity,  and  as  well  in  possession  as  in  expec- 
tancy, of,  in,  and  to  all  that  certain  farm,  or  piece  of 
land,  situate,  (fee.  [describing  it],  with  all  and  singular 
the  hereditaments  and  appurtenances  thereunto  be- 
longing. 

In  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands 
and  seals,  this day  of ,  in  the  year  . 


Quit- Claim  Deed  with   Covenant. 

This  indenture  made  the  first  day  of  January,  in  the 
year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty,  between  O. 

N.,  of  the  city  of  Albany,  county  of ,  and  State 

of  New  York,  party  of  the  first  part,  and  J.  N.,  of  the 

town  of ,  county  of ,  and  State  of , 

party  of  the  second  part,  witnesseth,  that  the  said  party 


38  LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR. 

of  the  first  part,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of 
five  thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  lawful 
money  of  the  United  States  of  Amer^ica,  to  him  in  hand 
paid,  by  the  said  party  of  tlie  second  part,  at  or  before 
the  ensealing  and  delivery  of  these  presents,  the  receipt 
whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,  has  remised,  released, 
and  quit-claimed,  and  by  these  presents  does  remise,  re- 
lease, and  quit-claim,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part,  and  to  his  heirs  aiid  assigns  for  ever,  all  [here  de- 
scribe land  sold] ;  together  with  alj  and  singular  the  ten- 
ements, hereditaments,  and  appurtenances,  thereunto 
beloijging,  or  in  anywise  appertaining,  and  the  rever- 
sion and  reversions,  remainder  and  remainders,  rents, 
issues,  and  profits  thereof.  And  also,  all  the  estate, 
right,  ,  title,  interest,  property,  possession,  claim,  and 
demand  whatsoever,  as  well  in  law  as  in  equity,  of 
the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  of,  in,  or  to  the  above  de- 
scribed premises,  and  every  part  and  parcel  thereof,  with 
the  appurtenances.  To  have  and  to  hold,  all  and  sin- 
gular the  above  mentioned  and  described  premises,  to- 
gether with  the  appurtenances,  unto  the  said  party  of 
the  second  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns  for  ever.  And  the 
said  party  of  the  first  part  for  himself,  his  heirs,  execu- 
tors, and  administrators,  does  hereby  covenant,  promise, 
and  agree,  to  and  with  the  said  party  of  the  second  part, 
his  heirs  and  assigns,  that  he  has  not  made,  done,  com- 
mitted, executed,  or  sufferecl  ^ny  act  or  acts,  thing  or 
things  whatsoever,  whereby,  or  by  means  whereof,  the 
above  mentioned  and  described  premises,  or  any  part  or 
parcel  thereof,  now  are,  or  at  any  time  hereafter  shall  or 
may  be  impeached,  charged,  or  encumbered,  in  any 
manner  or  way  whatsoever. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  has 
hereunto  set  his  hand  and  seal,  the  day  and  year  first 
above  written. 

O.  N.  (l.s.) 

Sealed  and  delivered  in  ) 
the  presence  of  V.  S.  \ 


LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR.  HO 

Form  of  Acknoirledginent  of  Deeds  in  Maine^  New 
H(t?npshire,  3Iassachuselts,  Vermont,  Rhode  Island, 
and  Connecticut,  by  Husband  and  Wife. 

Comn.onwealth  [or,  State]  of ,        1 

County  of ,  ss.  [town  and  date.]  \ 

Then  peisonally  appeared  the  above  named  O.  S.,  [and 


E.  S.,  iiis  wife,  and  severally 
foregoing  instrument  to  be  his 
before  me,  '  N.  \V., 

Justice  of  the  Peace. 


and   acknowledged   the 
tlieirs]  free  act  and  deed 


By  a  Person  Conveying  by  a  Power  of  Attorney, 
Commonwealth  [or,  State]  of 


County  of ,  55.  [town  and  date.]  \ 


Then  personally  appeared  the  above  named  O.  N., 
who  signed  and  sealed  the  foregoing  instrument  as  the 
attorney  of  the  above  named  E.  R.,  and  acknowledge 
the  same  to  be  his  free  act  and  deed  ;  before  me, 

J.  N., 
Justice  of  the  Peace. 


.\ 


Certificate  of  Acknowledgment  of  a  Deed  of  Property  in 
New  York,  the  grantor  being  known  to  the  Officer. 

State  of  New^  York, 
Putnam  County,  ^ 

On  this day  of ,  in  the  year ,  personally 

appeared  O.  N ,  and  acknowledged  the  within  convey- 
ance to  be  his  act  and  deed,  and  I  certify  that  I  well 
know  the  said  O.  N.,  and  that  he  is  the  same  person 
who  is  described  in  the  within  conveyance,  and  who  ex- 
ecuted the  same. 

N.  B.,  Commissioner  of  Deeds, 

for  said  County  of  Putnam. 


40  LEGAL  INSTRUCTOR. 


MORTGAGES. 

A  mortgage  is  the  conveyance  of  property,  subject  to 
rights  of  redemption. 

A  mortgage  made  to  secure  the  purchase-money,  will 
take  the  preference  of  any  other  mortgage. 

A  mortgage  on  personal  property,  made  io  secure  the 
payment  of  any  money  except  the  purchase-nioney, 
should  be  accompanied  by  the  delivery  of  the  goods  to 
the  mortgagee,  and  be  followed  by  his  continued  posses- 
sion of  the  property. 

A  mortgage  on  personal  'property  may  be  available 
security,  even  if  the  possession  of  the  property  is  not 
changed  ;  provided  the  requirements  of  law  are  complied 
with,  and  there  is  no  previous  mortgage,  and  it  can  be 
made  to  appear  that  such  mortgage  was  given  for  a  val- 
uable consideration,  and  without  intent  to  defraud  credi- 
tors. 

All  mortgages  made  \^  ith  intent  to  defraud  creditors 
are  void. 

Mortgages  on  personal  property,  where  the  possession 
is  not  changed,  occasion  innumerable  suits  at  law^ 

In  Maine,  the  property  mortgaged,  should  be  delivered 
to,  and  retained  by  the  mortgagee,  and  the  mortgage 
should  be  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  town 
in  which  the  morigager  resides. 

In  Massachusetts.  Connecticut,  and  several  other 
States,  mortgages  on  personal  property,  when  the  mort- 
gager retains  possession,  must  be  recorded  by  the  clerk 
of  the  town  where  the  mortgager  resides,  and  in  the 
town  where  he  principally  transacts  his  business. 

In  New  York  State,  a  mortgage  on  real  property  must 
be  recorded  in  the  clerk's  office  of  the  countv  where  the 


LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR.  41 

estate  lies.  And  all  mortgages,  or  a  true  copy  thereof, 
on  personal  property,  must  be  filed — if  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  in  the  ollice  of  the  register ;  if  in  any  other 
place  in  the  State,  in  the  town  clerk's  office  where  the 
mortgager  resides.  And  all  mortgages  on  personal  pro- 
perty will  cease  to  be  valid  after  one  year,  unless  within 
thirty  days  next  preceding  the  expiration  of  the  year,  a 
copy  of  the  mortgage  is  again  filed. 

In  New  Jersey,  mortgages  must  be  acknowledged, 
proved,  and  recorded,  in  the  same  manner  as  deeds. 

The  mortgager  is  entitled  to  redeem  his  property  in 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Connecticut,  New  Hampshj'e, 
&c.  In  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Maine,  he 
has  three  years  in  which  to  redeem  it. 


Mortgage  of  Real  Estate, 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  That  I,  A.  N.,  of 
-,  in  the  county  of ,  and  State  of ,  yeoman 


for  and  in  consideration  of dollars,  paid  by  E.  V., 

of ,  in  the  county  of ,  merchant,  the  receipt 

whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,  do  hereby  give,  grant, 
bargain,  sell,  and  convey,  unto  the  said  E.  V..  his  heirs 
and   assigns,  for  ever,  a  certain   parcel  of  land  situate 

in ,  in  said  county  of ,  together  with  all 

the  privileges  and  appurtenances  to  the  same  belonging, 
and  bounded  as  follows  : 


[Here  insert  the  boundaries.^ 


To  have  and  to  hold  the  above  granted  premises  to 
the  said  E.  V.,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  to  his  and  their  use 


4S  LEGAL    INSTR'   / 

and  beboof  for  ever.     And  I  do,  for  n/y.-if  .'^v  aP  c , 
ecutors,  and  administrators,  covenant  aiid  Crigage  lo  d,L. 
with  the  said  E.  V.,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  that  I  am  law 
fullv  seized  in  fee  simple  of  the  afore-granted  premises ; 
thai  they  are  free  from  all  incumbrances  ;  that  I  have 
good  right  to  sell   and  convey  the  same  to  the  said  E. 
W.,  his  heirs  and  assigns  ;  and  that  I  will,  and  my  heirs, 
executors,  and  administrators,  shall,  warrant  and  defend 
the  same  to  the  said  E.  V.,  his  heirs  and   assigns,  for 
ever,  against  the  lawful  claims  and  demands  of  all  per- 
sons. 

Provided  nevertheless,  That  if  the  said  A.  N.,  his 
heirs,  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns,  shall  pay 
unto  the  said  E.  Y.,  his  executors,  administrators,  or  as- 
signs, the  sum  of dollars,  in years  from  the 

date  hereof,  then  this  deed,  as  also  a  certain  promissory 
note  bearing  even  date  with  these  presents,  given  by  the 
said  A.  N.,  to  the  said  E.  V.,  whereby  he  promises  to  pay 
the  said  sum  at  the  time  aforesaid,  with  interest  semi- 
annually at  the  rate  of  six  per  centum,  shall  both  be  void 
to  all  intents  and  purposes,  otherwise  shall  remain  in 
full  force  and  virtue. 

In  witness  whereof,  we,  the  said  A.  N.,  and  U.  B.,v 
wife  of  the  said  A.  N.,  who  hereby  relinquishes  all  her 
right  of  dower  in  the  above  named  piemises,  have  here- 
unto set  our  hands  and  seals,  this day  of ,  in 

the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
fifty. 

A.  N.  (l.  s.) 
E.  B.  (l.  s.) 

Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered,  in  presence  of 
[Must  be  acknowledged  and  recorded.] 


LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR.  43 


CERTIFICATES  OF  RENTING. 

Tenant's  Agreement  in   Common   Use, 

This  is  to  certify,  that  I  have  hired  and  taken  from 
B.  D.j  all  that  certain  brick  store  in  the  city  of  New- 
York,  on  the  east  side  of  Nassau  street,  No.  — ,  now  oc- 
cupied by  O.  L.  as  a  book  and  periodical  store,  for  the 
term  of  one  year  from  the  first  day  of  January,  1851,  at 
the  yearly  rent  of  one  thousand  dollars,  payable  in  quar- 
terly payments,  to  be  made  on  the  first  day  of  April, 
July,  October,  and  January. 

And  I  hereby  promise  to  make  punctual  payment  of 
the  rent  in  manner  aforesaid,  and  quit  and  surrender  the 
premises  at  the  expiration  of  the  said  term,  in  as  good 
state  and  condition  as  reasonable  use  and  wear  thereof 
will  permit,  damages  by  the  elements  excepted,  and  en- 
gage not  to  let  or  underlet  the  whole  or  any  part  of  the 
said  premises,  or  occupy  the  sanie  for  any  business 
deemed  extra-hazardous  on  account  of  fire,  without  the 
written  consent  of  the  landlord,  under  the  penalty  of  for- 
feiture and  damages. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal,  the  first  day  of  Jan- 
uary, lb51. 

O.  W.  N.  (l.  s.) 


Landlord's  Agreement  in   Common   Use,  . 

This  is  to  certify,  that  I  have  let  and  rented  unto  S. 
S.,  all  that  certain  brick  store  in  the  city  of  Brooklyn,  on 
the  east  side  of  Fulton  street,  No.  — ,  now  occupied  by 


44  LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR. 

E.  S.,  as  a  book  and  periodical  store,  for  the  term  of  one 
year  from  the  first  day  of  January,  1851,  at  the  yearly 
rent  of  one  thousand  dollars,  payable  in  quarterly  pay- 
ments, to  be  made  on  the  first  days  of  April,  July,  Octo- 
ber, and  January.  The  premises  are  not  be  used  or  oc- 
cupied for  any  business  deemed  extra-hazardous  on  ac- 
count of'fire,  nor  shall  the  same,  or  any  part  thereof,  be 
let  or  underlet,  without  the  written  consent  of  the  land- 
lord, under  the  penalty  of  forfeiture  and  damages. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal,  the  first  day  of  Jan- 
uary, 1851. 

P.  A-  (l.  s.) 


FEES  PAYABLE  AT  THE  PATENT  OFFICE. 

If  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  as  a  patent-fee  $30  00 
If  a  foreigner,  who  has  resided  in  the  U.  States 
one  year  next  preceding  tiie  application  for  a 
patent,  and  shall  have  made  oath  of  his  inten- 
tion to  become  a  citizen         -             -         -  30  00 
If  a  subject  of  the  sovereign  of  Great  Britain  500  00 
All  other  foreigners            -             -             -  300  00 
On  entering  an  application  for  an  appeal  from 

the  decision  of  the  conunissioner             -  25  00 
On  extending  a  pntent  beyond  fourteen  years  40  00 
For  adding  to  a  patent  the  specification  of  a  sub- 
sequent improvement               -                -  15  00 
In  case  of  reissue,  for  every  additional  patent  30  00 
On  surrender  of  an  old  patent  to  be  reissued, 
or  correct  a  mistake  of  the  patentee         -  15  00 
For  a  disclaimer         -             -             -             -  10  00 
For  a  design  patent             -             -             -  15  00 


LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR.  4^ 


GOLD  COINS. 

$  cts. 

United  States  Eagle,  since  1834 

- 

10  00 

United  States  Eagle,  before  1834 

- 

10  43 

United  States  Half  Eagle 

5  00  to 

»    5  22 

United  States  Gluarter  Eagle 

.    2  50  tc 

►    2  61 

Doubloon,  Mexico            -        -        - 

15  46  to  15  60 

Doubloon,  Spain,  1802 

- 

15  90 

Doubloon,  Chili,  1841 

- 

15  55 

Doubloon,  Bolivia,  1839 

- 

15  60 

Doubloon,  Peru,  1827 

- 

15  60 

Doubloon,  New  Granada 

- 

15  60 

Doubloon,  Central  America 

- 

15  60 

Half  Doubloon,  Bolivia,  1836 

- 

7  75 

auarter  Doubloon,  Chili,  1840 

- 

3  80 

Quarter  Doubloon,  Peru 

- 

3  80 

Quarter  Doubloon,  Colombia 

- 

3  80 

Quarter  Doubloon,  Bolivia,  1835 

•        - 

3  80 

Guinea            -            .            -            . 

. 

5  00 

Half  Guinea 

- 

2  50 

Seven  Shilling  Piece 

. 

1  70 

Sovereign         -        -        .        -          . 

4  80  to  4  84 

Double  Louis,  France,  before  1786 

- 

7  20 

Double  Louis,  France,  since  1786 

9  02  1 

to  9  12 

Double  Louis,  Malta 

- 

9  23 

Louis,  France,  5  pwts.  and  5  3-4  grs. 

-■ 

4  63 

46  LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR. 


9cu 

Louis,  France,  4  pwts.  and  22  grs. 
Louis,  Malta 

Demi  Louis,  Malta         -        -        -        - 
Forty  Francs            .            -            - 

4  56 

4  64 

.        4  33 

7  67 

Twenty  Francs 

Ducat,  Frankfort            -            -            - 

Ducat,  current,  Denmark 

Ducat,  specie,  Denmark        -        •    .     - 

Ducat,  Cologne            -            -            - 

Ducat,  Bern            -            .             - 

.       3  83 

-     2  26 

.        -      1  80 

-  2  26 

-  2  26 
2  00 

Ducat,  Hungary 

Ducat,  Holland            ... 

2  29 
2  26 

Ducat,  Hanover        -        .        .            • 
Ducat,  Brunswick        -        - 

2  28 
2  24 

Ducat,  Hamburg      -        -        *        • 
Ducat,  Sweden           .... 

-      2  25 
2  23 

Ducat,  Saxony     •   - 
Ducat,  Russia,  1763 

2  23  to  2  26 
2  26 

Ducat,  Russia,  1796 

2  28 

Six  Ducat  Piece,  Naples,  1783 

5  22 

Two  Ducat  Piece,  Naples,  1762 

-      1  5^) 

Three  Ducat  Piece,  Naples,  J  818 
Ducat,  Prussia             ... 

2  48 
2  25  to  2  27 

Ducat.,  Poland 

-        2  26 

Ducat,  Wurtemburg             .         .          - 

2  22 

Wurtcnibiirg         -         ,         .         -         - 

4  87 

Pistole,  old,  Geneva         .         .         -         - 

3  96 

Pistole,  New,  Geneva 

-      3  40 

Pistole,  Brunsw.ick        -        .        -         - 

4  53 

LEGAL   INSTRUCTOR.  47 

$  cts. 

Pistole,  Bern  - 4  51 

Pistole,  Parma        -        -         -  -  4  10  to  4  IB 

Pistole,  Spain,  1801 98 

Gold  Florin.  Hanover        -        -         -         •  1  65 

George  d'or,  Hanover  -        -         -         -        3  97 

Christian  d'or,  Denmark      -        -        -  4  00 

Seguin,  Tuscany  -  -  -  -  -  2  28 
Seguin,  Turkey        -         -        -        .  1  81  to  1  85 

Forty  Line  Piece,  Milan,  1808       .-        -        -        7  45 

Seguin,  Milan 2  27 

Seguin,  Rome,  since  1748  -  -  -  -  2  23 
Seguin,  Piedmont        -        .        -        -        .  2  27 

Gold  Ruble,  Russia        -        -        -        -  73  to    96 

Imperial,  Russia,  1801        -         -         -        ♦  7  78 

Half  Imperial,  Russia,  1808  -  -  -  -  3  91 
Five  Thalers,  Germany,  1825  -  -  -  3  90 
Ten  Guilders  -  -  .  .  4  00 


SILVER  COINS. 

$ctg. 

United  States  Dollar 1  GO 

Mexican  Dollar  -  -  •  -        1  80 

Mexican  Real  ....  12 

English  Crown  -  -  -         1  09  to  I  21 

English  Half  Crown       "^    .  .  -  60 

English  Shilling 23 

English  Sixpence 11 

Quarter  Franc  .  -  -  «  4 


48  LEQAL  INSTRUCTOR. 

$  CtS. 

Half  Franc            -            -            .            -        -  8 

One  Franc        -            -                         -            -  17 

Two  Francs        ...        -          -        •  34 

Five  Francs 93  to  95 

French  Crown 1   06 

One  Livre            -            -            -            -        -  1  07 

Base  Dollar,  Colombia            -            -            -  70 

Base  Dollar,  New  Granada        -        -        -        -  65 

Spanish  Dollar         -            -            -             I  00  to  1  01 

Spanish  Real            -            -            -            -  12 

Cross  Pistareen         ------  16 

Dollar,  La  Plata 90 

Dollar,  Colombia          -            -            -            -  1  00 

Quarter  Dollar,  Chili 23 

Two  Reals,  Ecuador              -             -             -  13 

Quarter  Dollar,  Guatemala        -          -        -        -  22 

Dollar,  Peru             -            -            -            -  1  00 

Two  Reals,  Central  America        -          -          -  23 

Dollar,  Bolivia,  1838            -            -            -  I  00 

Half  Dollar,  Bolivia,  1830        -        .        -        -  48 

Rupee,  1835             ....  40 

Crown,  Tuscany        ------  97 

Spudo,  Naples            -             -            -             -  94 

One  Guilder,  Holland        -        -          -        -        -  36 

Rix  Dollar 92  to  96 

One  Thaler,  Germany            -             -            -  66 

Rix  Dollar,  1812            .            -            -            -  66 

Dollar,  Hungary         -            -            -            -  93 

One  Guilder,  Germany         -         -         -            -  37 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  FARMING. 
ELEMENTS 

OF 

PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE. 


SOILS. 

EXTERNAL   CHARACTERISTICS. 

The  Soil  is  the  upper  portion  of  the  ground  in  which 
plants  are  produced-.  It  forms  a  stratum  of  from  a  few 
inches  to  a  foot  or  more  in  depth.  It  is  usually  some- 
what dark  in  color,  arising  from  the  mixing  with  it  of 
the  decomposed  stems,  leaves,  and  other  parts  of  plants 
\*rhich  had  grown  upon  it,  and  in  part  often  from  the  pre- 
sence of  animal  substances.  The  decomposed  organic 
portion  of  the  soil  may  be  termed  mould  ;  mould  distin- 
guishes the  soil  from  the  subsoil. 

Soils  are  termed  rich  or  poor :  with  relation  to  their 
texture,  they  may  be  termed  stiff,— and  free  or  light. — 
The  stiff  soils  are  those  which  are  tenacious  and  cohe- 
sive in  their  parts  ;  the  light  or  free  soils  are  those  which 
are  of  a  looser  texture,  and  whose  parts  are  easily  sep- 
arated. 

All  soils  which  possess  this  cohesive  property  in  a  con- 


10  ELEMENTS    OP 

sideiable  degree,  are  termed  clays ;  while  all  the  looser 
soils  are  termed  Ilffht  oi  free. 

When  soils  are  naturally  fertile,  or  rendered  perma- 
nently so  by  art,  they  are  termed  loa?/is. 

Subsoils  are  distinguished  from  soils  by  the  absence 
of  mould. 

Soils  may  be  distinguished  according  to  their  texture 
and  constitution,  and  they  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes.— the  stiff  or  strong,  denominated  Clays, — the 
light  or  free,  subdivided  into  the  Sandy,  Gravelly,  and 
Peaty  ;  and  all  these,  again,  may  be  distinguished, 

1st,  According  to  their  powers  of  production,  when 
they  are  termed  Rich  or  Poor ;  and 

2dj  According  to  their  habitual  relation  with  respect 
to  moisture,  when  they  are  termed  Wet  or  Dry. 

THE     PROPERTIES    OF    SOILS    AS    DETERMINED    BY 
CHEMICAL    ANALYSIS. 

Soils  consist  chiefly  of  silica,  alumina,  hme,  magnesia, 
oxide  of  iron,  potassa,  and  soda,  together  with  a  portion 
of  matter  derived  from  organic  substances. 

The  soil,  then,  may  be  chiefly  regarded, 

1st,  As  the  instrument  for  fixing  the  roots  of  plants  in 
the  ground ;  and, 

2d,  As  a  medium  for  conveying  to  them  the  water 
holding  dissolved  the  different  substances  which  pass 
into  the  plant. 

The  order  in  which  the  principal  substances  that  en- 
ter into  the  composition  of  soils  possess  an  absorbent 
power,  is  the  following  : 

1.  Animal  and  vegetable  substances. 

2.  Alumina. 

3.  Carbonate  of  Lime. 

4.  Silica. 

The  following  conclusions  may  be  given  as  deducible 
from  the  investigations  of  chemists  : 

1.  Soils,  in  which  a  large  quantity  of  silica  and  alumina 


PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE.  11 

exists  in  the  state  of  fine  divisions,  are  comparatively 
fertile. 

2.  Soils  in  which  the  quantity  of  sihceous.sand  is 
large  are  comparatively  infertile ;  while  soils  in  which 
the  sand  is  fine  and  only  partially  siliceous,  are  compare 
atively  fertile. 

3.  Iron  exists  in  all  spils,  but  does  not  influence 
their  fertility  in  proportion  to  its  larger  or  smaller  quan- 
tity. 

4.  An  excess  of  the  acid  combinations  of  the  oxide 
of  iron,  and  certain  other  saline  bodies,  is  hurtful  to  veg- 
etation. 

6.  Carbonate  of  hme  exists  in  the  best  soils,  and,  gen- 
erally, though  not  always,  in  larger  quantity  in  the  bet- 
ter  than  in  the  inferior  soils. 

6.  Certain  earths  possess  the  power  of  combining 
chemically  with  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  and  of 
retaining  it  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time.  Thus,  alumina 
and  lime  form  certain  compounds  of  greater  or  less  in- 
solubility with  animal  and  vegetable  matters,  while 
silica  will  not  enter  into  the  same  combinations ;  and 
hence  it  is  that  aluminous  and  calcareous  soils  retain 
for  a  longer  time  the  manure  applied  to  them  than  sili- 
ceous soils. 

7.  When  w^ater  is  in  excess  in  the  soil,  and  when 
vegetable  matter  is  present,  acid  is  formed  which  is 
injurious  to  the  productive  powers  of  the  soil.  Far- 
mers are  familiar  with  this  effect,  and  say  that  the  soil 
is  soured. 

8.  Soils,  besides  absorbing  moisture  from  the  air,  ap- 
pear to  absorb  carbon  and  other  matters  nutrimental  to 
plants. 

MEANS    OF    INCREASING    THE    PRODUCTIVE    POWERS 
CF    SOILS. 

1.  Supply  the  soil  with  those  organic  and  earthy  sub- 
stances which  may  be  required. 

2.  Alter  its  texture,  depih,  and  properties,  by  tillage 
and  other  means. 


12  ELEMENTS   OF 

3.  Change  its  relation  with  respect  to  moisture. 

4.  Change  its  relation  with  respect  to  temperature, 

MANURES. 

There  are, — 

1.  Animal  and  Vegetable  Manures. 

2.  Mineral  Manures. 

3.  Mixed  Manures. 

Lime  may  be  applied  to  the  land  thus : 

1.  It  may  be  laid  on  the  surface  of  land  which  is  in 
grass,  and  remain  there  until  the  land  is  ploughed  up 
for  tillage.  Lime,  in  this  case,  quickly  sinks  into  the 
soil,  and  acting  upon  it,  prepares  it  for  crops  when  it  is 
again  tilled. 

2.  It  may  be  spread  upon  the  ground,  and  covered 
by  the  plough,  just  after  a  crop  of  any  kind  has  been 
reaped. 

3.  It  may  be  spread  upon  the  surface  even  when 
plants  are  growing. 

4.  It  may  be,  and  is  most  frequently,  applied  during 
the  season  in  which  the  land  is  in  fallow,  or  in  prepara- 
tion for  what  are  termed  fallow  crops. 

5.  It  may  be  mixed  with  earthy  matter,  particularly 
with  that  containing  vegetable  remains;  forming  a 
compost. 

IMPLEMENTS  OF  TtlE  FARM. 

1.  Implements  for  preparing  land  for  plants  to  be 
cultivated.  These  may  be  called  the  Implements  of 
Preparatory  Tillage : 

1.. The  Plough. 

2.  The  Harrow. 

3.  The  Roller. 

2.  Machines  for  Sowing: 

1.  Corn  in  rows. 


PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE.  18 

2.  Corn  and  Grass-seeds  broad-cast. 

3.  The  Seeds  of  the  Bean  and  Pea. 

4.  Tlie  smaller  Seeds  in  rows. 

3.  Implements  for  Hoeing. 

Horse-Hoes,  &c. 

4.  Machines  for  Thrashing  and  Winnowing. 

1.  Thrashing-Macliine. 

2.  Winnowing-Machine. 

5.  Implements  for  preparing  food  for  live-stock. 

1.  Turnip-slicer. 

2.  Chaff-cutter,  &c. 

6.  Wheel-carriages. 

1.  Single  and  Double-horse  Cart,  or  Wagon. 

2.  Sparred  or  Corn-cart. 

7.  Utensils  of  Dairy. 

1.  Churn. 

2.  Cheese-press,  &c. 

8.  Implements  of  Manual  Labor,  &c. 

Barrows,  Forks,  Spades,  Shovels,  6cc. 

PLOUGHING. 

The  medium'  depth  of  good  ploughing  may  be  held 
to  be  seven  inches.  When  circumstances,  as  the  kind 
of  crop  and  the  nature  of  the  soil,  do  not  require  deep 
ploughing,  the  depth  may  be  less. 

The  common  calculation,  where  good  ploughing  is 
practised,  is,  that  a  pair  of  horses  will  plough  an  acre 
when  in  grass  in  nine  hours.  In  very  stiff  soils  less  will 
be  done  ;  and  in  very  hght  soils,  more. 

DRAINING. 

Principles  to  be  ever  kept  in  mind  by  the  tillage-far- 
mer are  to  keep  his  land  dry,  rich,  and  clean. 

In  open  drains,  of  whatever  depth,  the  sides  should 


14  ELEMENTS    OF 

possess  a  declivity  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  to  prevent 
them  from  crumbling  down  and  being  undermined  by 
the  current. 

When  drains  of  this  class  are  covered,  they  are  gen- 
ally  made  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  deep,  and 
filled  with  stones  or  other  loose  materials  to  within  a  foot 
of  the  surface. 

SUCCESSION  OF  CROPS. 

The  experience  of  husbandmen  from  the  earliest  times 
has  shown,  that  the  same  kinds  of  plants  cannot  be  ad- 
vantageously cultivated  in  continued  succession.  The 
same  or  similar  species  tend  to  grow  feebly,  or  degener- 
ate, or  become  more  subject  to  diseases,  when  cultivated 
successively  upon  the  same  ground. 

All  herbaceous  plants,  w^hen  cut  in  their  green  state, 
ihat  is,  before  they  have  matured  their  seeds,  exhaust 
the  soil  less  than  w^hen  they  remain  until  they  have 
ripened  their  seeds. 

GOOD    RULES. 

\st,  Crops  consisting  of  plants  of  the  same  or  similar 
species,  should  not  follow  in  succession,  but  should  re- 
turn at  as  distant  intervals  as  the  case  may  allow. 

2d,  Crops  consisting  of  plants  whose  mode  of  growth 
or  cultivation  tends  to  the  production  of  weeds,  should 
not  follow  in  succession. 

3d,  Crops  whose  culture  admits  of  the  destruction  of 
weeds,  should  be  cultivated  when  we  cultivate  plants 
which  favor  the  production  of  weeds. 

And,  Ath,  when  land  is  to  be  laid  to  grass,  it  should 
be  done  when  the  soil  is  fertile  and  clean. 

When  we  find  that  land  requires  rest,  we  may  lay  it 
down  to  grass  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  taking  care 
when  this  is  done,  that  the  land  shall  be  in  as  fertile  a 
state  as  circumstances  will  allow,  and  free  of  weeds. 

EXAMPLE. 

1st  year,  Turnips  or  other  green  crop,  manured. 


PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE.  16 

2d      "      Grain-crop,  as  wheat,  barley,  or  oats. 
3d      "      Sown  grasses. 
4th     "      Grain-crop. 

In  this  course,  we  observe  that  each  exhausting  crop 
alternates  with  a  restorative  one  ;  and  that,  in  each 
year,  one-half  of  the  farm  is  under  exhausting,  and  one- 
half  under  restorative,  crops. 


CULTIVATION  OF  PLANTS. 

I.   PLANTS  CULTIVATED  FOR  THEIR  SEEDS. 

/.     Cereal  Grasses. 

Of  the  cereal  grasses,  those  most  commonly  cultivated 
in  this  country  are  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats. 

The  seeds  of  these  cereal  grasses  may  be  sown  either 
previously  to  winter  or  in  spring  ;  wheat  and  rye  are,  for 
the  most  part,  sown  before  winter ;  barley  and  oats  gen- 
erally in  the  spring. 

In  the  end  of  summer,  when  the  green  color  of  the 
stem  has  nearly  disappeared,  and  when  the  grain,  hav- 
ing changed  from  its  milky  state,  has  somewhat  har- 
dened, it  will  be  proper  to  commence  the  process  of 
reaping. 

WHEAT. 

The  following  species  may  be  enumerated  as  admit-r 
ting  of  cultivation  for  their  seeds  : 

Summer  Wheat. 

Winter  or  Lammas  Wheat. 

Compact  Wheat. 

Egyptian  Wheat. 

Turgid  Wheat. 

Dark-spiked  Wheat. 

Barley-like  Wheat, 

Far. 

Spelt. 


19  ELEMENTS    OF 

One-grained  Wheat. 
Polish  Wheal. 

The  most  important  in  the  rural  economy  of  this 
country  is  the  winter-wheat. 

Winter-wheat  is  sometimes  termed  spring-wheat. — 
This  merely  arises  from  the  period  of  sowing.  If  it  is 
sown  in  spring,  it  is  termed  spring-wheat;  if  previous  to 
winter,  Lammas  or  winter-wheat. 

Wheat  is  of  very  general  cultivation  on  all  classes  of 
soils ;  but  the  soils  which  are  best  suited  to  it,  are  those 
which  are  more  or  less  clayey. 

W^heat  is  subject  to  various  accidents  and  diseases, 
some  of  them  peculiar  to  itself  The  most  dreaded  and 
destructive  of  these  is  blight  or  mildew. 

This  disease  is  indicated  by  the  presence  of  certain 
minute  plants  of  the  order  of  Fungi,  or  the  mushroom 
tribe,  which  grow  upon  the  stem  and  leaves,  and  doubt- 
less feed  upon  and  exhaust  the  juices  of  the  plant. 

One  of  this  tribe  of  plants,  and  apparently  the  most 
destructive,  is  Puccinia  graminis,  which  appears  in  the 
form  of  small  spots  upon  the  stem,  and  gradually  extends 
in  lines  on  the  surface. 

A  disease  termed  rust  is  also  very  frequent  and  hurt- 
ful. It  appears  in  the  form  of  a  brownish  dust  upon  the 
stem  and  leaves ;  and  it  is  produced  likewise  by  a  par- 
asitical plant  of  the  same  family. 

Another .  (disease  of  wheat,  produced  also  by  minute 
fungous  plants,  is  smut. 

Farmers,  when  their  wheat  is  greatly  injured  by  this 
disease,  sometimes  wash  it,  by  immersing  it  in  vats  or 
cisterns  partly  filled  with  water.  The  smut-balls  and 
lighter  grains  floating  to  the  surface  are  skimmed  off, 
and  the  heavy  and  sound  grain  after  being  washed,  is 
exposed  to  the  air  to  dry,  or  dried  in  a  kiln  with  a  mod- 
erate heat. 

Certain  Hies  also  attack  the  wheat,  at  a  later  stage  of 
its  growth.  The  Cecidomj/ia  Tritici  is  a  fly  with  an 
orange-colored  body  and  white  wings.  About  the  month 
of  June  the  female  ascends  the  ears  of  wheat,  and  de- 


PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE.  J^ 

posites  her  eggs  in  these  by  means  of  a  fine  trunk,  and 
in  a  few  days  she  perishes.  The  progeny  being  hatch- 
ed in  the  ear,  feed  upon  the  grain.  They  are  very 
small,  from  ten  to  fourteen  being  sometimes  found  in 
one  grain,  and  are  distinguished  by  being  of  a  bright 
orange-color. 

"When  stored  in  the  granary  it  is  subject  to  the  attacks 
of  the  weevil  and  other  creatures. 


RYE. 

It  Stands  drought  better  than  wheat,  but  is  more  apt 
to  suffer  injury  from  wetness.  It  is  a  hardier  plant  than 
wheat,  and  less  subject  to  the  attacks  of  insects  and 
diseases. 

Rye,  though  free  from  the  diseases  of  wheat,  is  yet 
subject  to  a  peculiar  one.  This  is  the  ergot,  a  fungous 
plant,  which,  though  it  is  found  on  other  gramineous 
plants,  is  more  especially  the  disease  of  rye.  Jt  is  a 
long  cartilaginous-like  substance,  taking  the  place  ot 
the  grain,  and  projecting  from  the  ear.  It  chiefly  pre. 
vails  in  humid  seasons,  in  close  situations,  or  where  the 
soil  is  wet. 


BARLEY. 

Of  the  genus  Hordeum^  the  following  species  may  be 
enumerated  as  cultivated  for  their  seeds  : 

Two-rowed  Barley. 

Two-rowed  Naked  Barley. 

Two-rowed  Sprat  or  Battledore  Barley. 

Six-rowed  Barley. 

Six-rowed  Naked  Barley. 

Six-rowed  Sprat  or  Battledore  Barley. 

The  diseases  of  barley  are  not  so  numerous  or  fatal 
as  those  of  wheat.  It  is  attacked  by  the  larvae  of  cer- 
tain flies.  It  is  also  subject  to  smut,  though  in  a  partial 
degree,  and  the  fungous  is  usually  Uredo  segctum. 


(S  ELEMENTS    OP 

OATS. 
KINDS. 

Bristle-pointed  Oat. 
Short  Oat. 
Common  Oat. 
Tartarian  Oat. 
Naked  Oat. 

Ave7ia  sativay  Common  oat,  is  the  most  important  of 
the  cultivated  species. 

MAIZE. 

The  proper  method  of  cultivating  it  is  in  rows  at  the 
distance  from  one  another  of  from  3  to  4  feet. 

It  is  easily  injured  by  frosts. 

It  is  a  perfectly  nutritious  substance. 

The  maze  is  a  nourishing  food  for  all  the  domestic 
animals.  It  is  suited  to  the  feeding  of  the  horse  :  hogs 
get  speedily  fat  upon  it,  and  poultry  eagerly  eat  the 
hard  grains. 


LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS. 

THE    BEAN. 

The  bean  is  of  the  genus  Faba^  of  which  there  is 
reckoned  one  species — 

Faba  vulgaris — Common  Bean. 

There  are  two  general  classes, — those  which  are  cul- 
tiv,ated  in  the  fields,  and  are  thence  termed  field-beans, 
and  those  which  are  cultivated  in  gardens,  and  so  term- 
ed garden-beans. 

Of  the  white  or  garden  beans,  the  sorts  are  very  num- 
erous. 

The  Long-podded  are  of  the  middle  size  of  garden- 
beans,  and  there  are  many  varieties  enumerated  by  gar- 
deners. 


PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE.  19 

Beans  should  follow  a  corn-crop. 

It  is  a  frequent  practice  to  mix  a  quantity  of  peas 
with  beans,  generally  in  the  proportion  of  about  half  a 
bushel  to  the  acre. 

The  straw  of  the  bean  is  nutritious  and  wholesome. 
It  is  generally  given  to  horses,  and  is  reckoned  little  in- 
ferior to  hay. 

The  most  common  disease  of  the  bean  is  a  species  of 
rust,  produced  by  parasitic  plants  of  mushroom  family, 
growing  upon  it  in  the  same  manner  as  rust  or  mill-dew 
on  wheat. 

The  animals  that  attack  and  feed  upon  the  juices  of 
the  bean  are  certain  aphides,  the  most  common  of  which 
is  of  a  bluish-black  color,  and  is  called  the  collier.  In 
some  seasons  this  creature  is  very  destructive.  It  be- 
gins at  the  top  of  the  plant  and  continues  multiplying 
downwards.  A  remedy,  which  has  been  suggested  and 
practised,  is  to  cut  off  the  top  of  the  plants  as  soon  as 
the  aphides  appear ;  and  this  may  be  a  palliative  if 
carefully  performed. 

THE    PEA. 

Of  the  cultivated  Pea  there  seems  to  be  but  one  spe- 
cies, comprehending  our  various  cultivated  kinds,  whe- 
ther grown  in  the  garden  or  the  field,  namely : 

Pisum  sativum — Cultivated  Pea. 

Early  hoeing  in  the  case  of  this  plant  should  never 
be  neglected. 

BUCKWHEAT. 

Polygonum  Fagopyrum — Common  Buckwheat. 

The  soils  suited  to  it  are  the  lighter  kinds. 

The  seeds  of  the  buckwheat  may  be  given  advanta- 
geously to  horses,  to  poultry,  and  to  hogs.  Converted 
into  flour  it  makes  most  excellent  cakes. 


80  ELEMENTS    OF 


THE    TURNIP 

The  common  turnip  has  numerous  sorts,  distinguish- 
ed by  their  size,  form,  time  of  ripening,  and  other  pro- 
perties. 

1.  The  round  or  globular  ;  2.  The  depressed  :  and,  3. 
The  fusiform. 

The  insect  most  destructive  to  the  turnip  during 
the  first  stage  of  its  growth,  is  the  turnip-fly.  It  is  a 
species  of  beetle.  This  creature  attacks  the  plant  as 
soon  as  the  cotyledon  leaves  are  upon  it ;  when  the 
plants  have  put  on  the  second  or  rough  leaves,  they  are 
regarded  as  safe  from  injury  from  the  beetle,  and  hence 
a  security  against  its  ravages  is  a  rapid  and  vigorous 
vegetation  of  the  plant. 

There  are  other  creatures  that  attack  the  plant  at 
this  stage,  and  when  it  has  escaped  these  early  ene- 
mies, it  is  sometimes  attacked  by  the  larvse  of  a  species 
of  saw-fly. 

CABBAGE. 

The  kinds  of  the  cabbage  which  are  best  suited  to 
general  cultivation  in  the  fields  are  the  large-headed 
cabbages. 

The  proper  method,  however,  of  cultivating  the  pab- 
bage  is  to  bow  the  seeds  of  it  in  the  first  place  in  beds, 
and  ther»  transplant  it. 

THE    POTATO. 

This  plant,  of  tlie  genus  Solajium,  is  of  the  natural 
order  fSolanecc,  or  the  Night-shade  tribe. 

Of  all  the  species,  the  most  important  to  the  human 
race  is— 

Solanum  tuberosum—  the  Tuberous-rooted  Night-shade, 
or  Potato. 

The  soils  best  adopted   to  the  potato  are  of  the  drier 

and  liglitcr  class. 


•     £ 


PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE.  Sf 

The  potato  requires  a  large  supply  of  manure.  The 
quantity  should  be  from  16  to  20  tons  to  the  acre. 

The  starch  or  fecula  of  the  potato  may  be  obtained 
separately  by  simple  means,  and  applied  to  various  pur- 
poses of  domestic  economy. 

The  accidents  and  diseases  to  which  this  plant  is 
subject  are,  happily,  not  many,  nor,  in  this  coimtry  at 
least,  very  formidable.  We  are  not  much  troubled  with 
the  rot. 

THE    CARROT. 

The  most  esteemed  for  field-culture  are  the  Orange, 
and  the  Long-red. 

The  Carrot,  from  its  long  fusiform  root,  requires  a 
deep  soil.  It  prefers  the  sandy,  and  rejects  the  stiff 
clays. 

The  seeds  of  the  carrot  should  be  of  the  previous  sea- 
son's growth. 

Carrots  may  be  given  to  every  species  of  stock,  and 
they  form  in  all  cases  a  palatable  and  nutritious  food. 

THE    PARSNIP. 

The  seeds  of  the  parsnip  may  be  sown  either  in 
autumn  or  in  spring. 

The  seeds  must  be  new. 

All  animals  are  fond  of  the  parsnip.  To  milch  cows 
it  is  eminently  favorable,  giving  a  flavor  and  richness  to 
the  milk. 

THE    BEET. 

The  field-beet,  Beta  vulgaris,  is  of  larger  size,  and 
grows  more  above  ground,  than  the  garden  kinds. 

It  differs  from  the  turnip  in  this,  that  it  may  be  grown 
on  stiffer  soils. 

FLAX. 

The  most  important  of  the  genus  is — 


2S8  ELEMENTS    OP 

Linum  usitatissimum— Common  Flax. 

The  soils  best  suited  to  flax  are  those  which  contam 
a  large  proportion  of  vegetable  matter. 

SUGAR. 

The  Sugar-maple,  Acer  sacchariiiu?n,  is  one  of  the  in- 
numerable marvels  of  the  American  forest.  The  juice, 
which  continues  to  flow  for  five  or  six  weeks,  is  conveyed 
to  a  trough  at  the  foot  of  each  tree,  and  collected  every- 
day, and  poured  into  casks,  from  w^iich  it  is  drawn  to 
fill  tbe  boilers,  which  are  upon  the  spot.  It  is  then 
evaporated  by  means  of  a  brisk  fire,  until  the  liquid  is 
reduced  to  a  syrup,  when  it  is  left  to  cool,  and  it  is  then 
strained  through  woollen  cloth,  to  separate  the  impuri- 
ties. It  is  boiled  a  second  time,  until  it  is  of  a  proper 
consistency  to  be  poured  into  moulds.  The  sugar  ob- 
tained in  this  manner  is  equally  grateful  to  the  taste  as 
the  brown  sugar  derived  from  the  sugar-cane. 


PLANTS  CULTIVATED  FOR  THEIR  FRUITS. 

These  are, — 

The  Vine. 

The  Apple,  and  others  of  the  Apple  tribe  ;  as  the  Pear, 

the  Medlar,  and  the  Quince. 

The  Peach  and  others  of  the  Almond  tribe,  as  the 
Plum,  the  Apricot,  and  ths  Cherry. 

The  Strawberry  and  other  fruit-bearing  plants  of  the 
Rose  family  ;  as  the  Raspberry,  and  others. 

The  Ciooseberry,  and  others  of  the  Currant  tribe. 

The  Pumpkin,  and  others  of  the  (^ourd  tribe. 

The  Hazel,  and' others  of  the  Oak  tribe  ;  as  the  Oak, 
the  Chestnut,  and  the  Beach  :— Juglans  regia,  the  Wal- 
nut;  and  other  trees  and  shrubs  bearing:  nuts  and  ber- 
ries. 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  23 

MANAGEMENT  OF  GRASS  LANDS. 

FORAGE. 

The  clovers  and  similar  leguminous  plants  mixed 
with  grasses,  may  be  applied  alike  to  forage  and  to  her- 
bage. 

There  is  no  period  in  the  growth  of  these  plants,  at 
which  they  will  afford  so  early  and  rich  an  herbage,  as 
when  they  are  one-year  old  grass. 

In  stacking,  some  recommend  the  strewing  of  salt  upon 
the  hay,  as  the  building  of  the  stack  proceeds. 

The  grasses  to  be  mown  are  cut  down  when  the 
greater  number  of  them  have  come  into  flower. 

PASTURAGE. 

A  primary  improvement  of  w^hich  lands  unsuited  to 
cultivation  are  susceptible,  is  freeing  them  from  stagnant 
water. 

A  rule  of  the  farm  is  to  put  sheep  on  finer  and  shor- 
ter grasses  in  preference  to  cattle  and  horses,  and  cattle 
and  horses  upon  the  larger  and  ranker  pastures. 

The  chief  injury  which  land  when  left  long  in  grass 
is  apt  to  sustain,  is  the  decay  of  ics  herbage  by  the 
springing  up  of  inferior  plants.  The  most  common  of 
these  are  the  Miisci,  Mosses. 

The  best  method  of  destroying  this  class  of  plants  is 
by  draining  and  Uming. 


RESULTS 

OF    THE    INVESTIGATIONS    OF 

PROFESSOR  LIEBIG,  SIR  HUMPHRY  DAVY, 

AND    OTHERS,    ON 

PRODUCTIVE     FARMING.     , 


NECESSARY  RELATION  BETWEKN  THE  COMPOSITION 
OF  A  SOIL  AND  THE  VEGETABLES  IT  IS  FITTED  TO 
RAISE.  FALLOWING  AND  GREEN  CROPS  CONSIDERED 
AS  VEGETABLE  MANURE. 

Besides  heat,  light,  moisture,  and  the  component  ele- 
ments of  tiie  atmosphere,  which  are  necessary  for  the 
mere  existence  of  all  plants,  certain  fertihzing  substances 
are  seen  to  exercise  a  peculiar  influence  over  the  devel- 
opment either  of  whole  plants,  or  of  particular  parts  of 
them.  Such  substances  are  either  already  contained 
in  soil,  or  may  be  artificially  supplied  in  the  form  of  ma- 
nure. 

The  rules  of  a  rational  system  of  agriculture  should 
enable  us,  therefore,  to  give  to  each  plant  that  which  it 
requires  for  the  attainment  of  the  special  object  in  view 
— namely,  an  artificial  increase  of  certain  parts  which 
are  employed  as  food  for  man  and  animals. 

The  means  employed  for  the  production  of  fine  plia- 
ble straw  for  hats  and  bonnets  is  the  very  opposite  to  (he 
raode  which  must  be  adopted,  in  order  to  produce  the 


PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE.  25 

largest  possible  quantity  of  corn  from  the  same  plant. — 
Peculiar  methods  must  be  used  for  the  production  of 
nitros^on  in  the  seeds  ;  others  for  giving  strength  to  the 
straw  ;  and  others  again,  when  we  wish  to  give  such 
quahties  to  the  straw  as  will  enable  it  to  bear  the  weight 
of  the  ears. 

We  must  proceed  in  the  artificial  rearing  and  forcing 
of  plants  precisely  as  we  do  in  the  fattening  of  animals. 
The  llesh  of  wild  animals  is  devoid  of  fat,  or  nearly  so. 
The  production  of  flesh  and  fat  may  be  artificially  in- 
creased :  all  domesticated  animals  are  easily  fattened. — 
To  do  this,  we  add  to  the  quantity  of  food,  and  lessen 
(as  in  the  stall-fed  ox)  the  waste  occasioned  by  the  in- 
creased action  of  the  lungs,  (as  consequent  upon  motion,) 
together  with  the  waste  which  such  muscular  exertion 
uould  produce  by  increased  action  of  the  skin. 

Arable  land  is  originally  formed  by  the  crumbling  of 
rocks,  and  its  properties  depend  on  the  nature  of  its  com- 
ponent parts. 

Sand,  clay,  and  lime,  are  the  names  given  to  the  prin- 
cipal constituents  of  the  different  kinds  of  soil. 

Pure  sand,  and  pure  limestone,  in  which  there  are  no 
other  unorganized  substances  except  the  earth  of  flint, 
chalk,  or  silicic  acid  combined  with  lime,  form  absolutely 
barren  soils.  But  clay  always  forms  a  part  of  fertile 
soils.  Whence  is  the  origin  of  clay  earths  in  arable 
land  7  What  are  their  constituents  ?  and  what  part  do 
they  play  in  favoring  vegetation  ?  They  are  produced 
by  the  breaking  down  of  aluminous  minerals  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  weather.  These  minerals  are  found,  mixed 
with  other  substances,  in  granite,  mica-slate,  porphyry, 
clay  slate,  the  volcanic  rocks,  and  others.  Mountain 
limestone  is  remarkable  for  the  quantity  of  clayey  earths 
which  it  contains.  In  grauwacke  we  find  pure  quartz, 
clay  slate,  and  lime;  in  the  sandstones,  quartz  and 
loam  ;  and  in  the  transition  limestone  there  is  an  inter- 
mixture of  clay,  feldspar,  and  clay  slate.  These  exam- 
ples may  be  sufficient. 

It  is  known  that  aluminous  minerals  (that  is  to  say. 
minerals  containing  the  metal  "aluminum,"  which,  com- 


25  ELEMENTS    OF 

bined  with  oxygen,  forms  '-alumina,"  or  the  pure  earth 
of  clay)  are  the  most  widely  diflfused  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth  ;  and  all  fertile  soils,  or  soils  capable  of  culture, 
invariably  contain  alumina. 

There  must,  therefore,  be  something  in  aluminous 
earth  which  causes  it  to  exercise  an  influence  on  the  life 
of  plants,  and  to  assist  in  their  growth.  'I'he  property 
on  which  this  depends  is,  that  clay  invariably  contains 
potash  and  soda.  Besides  which,  alumina  attracts  and 
retains  water  and  ammonia  from  the  atinosphere.  Al- 
umina is  itself  very  rarely  found  in  the  ashes  of  plants  ; 
but  silica  (or  the  earth  of  flints)  is  always  present,  hav- 
ing, in  most  places,  entered  the  plants  by  means  of  alka- 
lies. Among  aluminous  minerals,  feldspar,  which  is  one 
of  them,  contains  17  per  cent,  of  potash  ;  mica  from  3  to 
5  per  cent,  of  soda :  clay  slate  contains  from  2  to  3  per 
cent,  of  potash  ;  and  loam  from  1  1-2  to  4  per  cent,  of 
the  same  alkali. 

So  that,  in  a  layer  of  soil  formed  by  the  breaking 
down  of  40,000  square  feet  of  one  of  these  rocks,  to  the 
depth  of  20  inches,  we  should  find  that  so  much  feldspar 
would  contain  more  than  a  million  pounds  of  potash  ;  if 
the  soil  were  formed  by  the  disintegration  of  clay  slate, 
about  200,000 ;  if  loam  were  the  material,  from  87,000 
to  300,C00 ;  and  similarly  of  other  rocks  of  partially 
aluminous  character. 

Potash  is  present  in  all  clays,  and  in  marl ;  it  has  been 
found  in  all  aluminous  earths  in  which  it  has  been  sought. 
Alum  (which  is  a  sulphate  of  alumina,  combined  with 
sulphate  of  potash)  may  be  procured  by  digesting  clay 
in  sulphuric  acid,  which  takes  up  both  the  alumina  and 
the  potash. 

A  thousandth  part  of  loam  mixed  with  the  quartz  in 
red  sandstone,  or  with  the  lime  in  the  diflferent  limestone 
formations,  alfords  as  much  potash  to  a  soil  twenty 
inches  in  depth  as  is  sullicient  to  supply  a  forest  of  pines 
growing  upon  it  with  potash  for  a  hundred  years. 

Water.  iin[)regiiated  with  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  at- 
mosphere, decomposes  rocks  which  contain  alkalies,  and 
then  dissolves  a  part  of  the  alkaline  carbonates  formed 


PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE.  27 

in  the  process.  Plants,  also,  by  producing  carbonic  acid 
during  their  decay,  and  by  means  of  the  acids  emitted 
by  their  hving  roots,  contribute  no  less  powerfully  to  de- 
stroy the  coherence  of  solid  minerals.  Air,  water,  and 
changing  temperature  prepare  the  difTerent  species  of 
rocks  for  yielding  to  plants  the  potash  or  soda  they  con- 
lain. 

Changing  temperature  is  a  most  important  agent  in 
nature.  It  not  only  assists  in  the  original  formation  of 
soils,  but  exerts  a  most  powerful  influence  over  those  al- 
ready in  existence.  In  wet  soils  the  temperature  rises 
slowly,  and  never  attains  the  same  height  as  in  one  that 
is  sandy  and  dry.  When  the  heat  of  the  atmosphere 
rises  no  higher  in  the  shade  than  60  or  70  degrees,  a  dry 
soil  may  become  so  warm  as  to  raise  the  thermometer 
to  90  or  100.  Hence,  though  the  expression  be  used 
figuratively,  it  is  in  this  instance  strictly  correct  to  say 
that  wet  soils  are  cold. 

The  exhaustion  of  alkalies  in  a  soil  by  successive 
crops  is  the  true  reason  why  practical  farmers  suppose 
themselves  compelled  to  suffer  land  to  lie  fallow.  It  is 
the  greatest  possible  mistake  to  think  that  the  tempora- 
ry diminution  of  fertility  in  a  field  is  chiefly  owing  to 
the  loss  of  the  decaying  vegetable  matter  it  previously 
contained :  it  is  principally  the  consequence  of  the  ex- 
haustion of  potash  and  soda,  which  are  restored  by  the 
slow  process  of  the  more  complete  disintegration  of  the 
materials  of  the  soil.  It  is  evident  that  the  careful  till- 
ing of  fallow  land  must  accelerate  and  increase  this  fur- 
ther breakitig  up  of  its  mineral  ingredients.  Nor  is  this 
repos^e  of  the  soil  always  necessary.  A  field,  \vhich  has 
become  unfitted  for  a  certain  kind  of  produce,  may  not, 
on  that  account,  be  unsuitable  for  another ;  and  upon 
this  observation  a  system  of  agriculture  has  been  grad- 
ually formed,  the  principal  object  of  which  is  to  obtain 
the  greatest  possible  produce  in  a  succession  of  years, 
with  the  least  outlay  for  manure.  Because  plants  re- 
quire for  their  growth  different  constituenls  of  soil, 
changing  the  crop  from  year  to  year  will  maintain  the 


28  ELEMENTS    OP 

fertility  of  that  soil  (provided  it  be  done  with  judgment) 
quite  as  well  as  leaving  it  at  rest  or  fallow. 

In  practical  farming-,  one  crop  in  artificial  rotation 
with  others,  extracts  from  the  soil  a  certain  quantity  of 
necessary  inorganic  matters  ;  a  second  carries  off,  in 
preference,  those  which  the  former  had  left,  and  neither 
could  nor  would  take  up. 

Experience  proves  that  wheat  should  not  be  attempt- 
ed to  be  raised  after  wheat  on  the  same  soil;  for,  like 
tobacco,  it  exhausts  the  soil.  But  if  decaying 
vegetable  mattter,  gives  it  the  power  of  producing 
how  happens  it  that,  in  soils  formed  in  large  proportion 
of  mouldered  wood,  the  corn-stalk  attain  no  strength, 
and  droops  permanently?  The  cause  is  this;  the 
strength  of  the  stalk  is  due  to  silicate  of  potash,  and  the 
corn  requires  phosphate  of  magnesia;  neither  of  which 
substances  a  soil  of  decaying  vegetable  matter  can  afford, 
since  it  does  not  contain  them  :  the  plant  may,  indeed, 
under  such  circumstances,  become  an  herb,  but  it  will 
bear  no  seeds.  We  say  phosphate  of  magnesia  is  neces- 
sary ; — the  small  quantities  of  the  phosphates  found  in 
peas  and  beans  is  the  cause  of  their  comparatively  small 
value  as  articles  of  nourishment,  since  they  surpass  ail 
other  vegetable  food  in  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  they 
contain.  But  as  the  component  parts  of  bone,  namely, 
phosphate  of  lime  and  magnesia,  are  absent  in  beans 
and  peas,  they  satisfy  appetite  without  increasing  thte 
strength. 

Again,  how  does  it  happen  that  wheat  does  not  flour 
ish  on  a  sandy  soil,  and  that  a  limestone  soil  is  also  un- 
suitable, unless  mixed  with  a  considerable  quantity  of 
clay  ?  Evidently  because  these  soils  do  not  contain  po- 
tash and  soda,  (always  found  in  clay  ;)  the  growth  of 
wheat  being  arrested  by  this  circumstance,  even  should 
all  other  requisite  substances  be  presented  in  abundance. 
It  is  because  they  are  mutually  prejudicial  by  appropri- 
ating the  alkalies  of  the  soil,  that  wormwood  will  not 
thrive  where  wheat  has  grown,  nor  wheat  where  worm- 
wood has  been. 

One  hundred  parts  of  wheat  straw  yield  15  1-2  of 


PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE.  99 

ashes  ;  the  same  quantity  of  barley  straw,  8  1-2  :  of  oat 
straw,  only  4  ;  the  ashes  of  the  three  are,  chemically,  of 
the  same  composition.  Upon  the  same  field  which  will 
yield  only  one  harvest  of  wheat,  two  successive  crops  of 
barley  may  be  raised,  and  three  of  oats.  .  We  have,  ia 
these  facts,  a  clear  proof  of  what  is  abstracted  from  the 
soil,  and,  consequently,  what  plants  require  for  their 
growth.— a  key  to  the  rational  mode  of  supplying  the 
deficiency. 

Potash  is  not  the  only  substance  requisite  for  the  ex- 
istence of  most  plants  ;  indeed,  it  may  be  replaced,  in 
some  cases,  by  soda,  magnesia,  or  lime ;  but  other  sub- 
stances are  required  also. 

Plants  obtain  phosphoric  acid  (found  in  combination 
with  lime  or  magnesia)  from  the  soil,  and  they,  in  their 
turn,  yield  it  to  animals,  to  assist  in  the  formation  of 
their  bones.  Creatures  that  feed  upon  flesh,  bread,  fruit, 
and  husks  of  grain,  take  in  much  more  phosphorus  than 
is  required  for  the  building  up  of  the  animal  fabric ;  and 
this  excess  is  again  usefully  thrown  out  by  them,  chief- 
ly in  their  liquid  excrements.  Some  plants,  however, 
extract  other  matters  from  the  soil  besides  silica,  potash, 
and  phosphoric  acid,  which  are  essential  constituents  of 
the  plants  ordinarily  cultivated. 

American  farming  presents  us  with  varied  instances  of 
plants  sown,  and  growing  together  in  the  same 
field.  Two  such  vegetables  will  mutually  injure  each 
other,  if  they  withdraw  the  same  food  horn  the  soil. — 
Plants  will  thrive  beside  each  other,  either  when  the 
substances  necessary  for  their  growth,  extracted  from 
the  soil,  are  of  different  kinds,  or  when  they  themselves 
are  not  both  in  the  same  stage  of  growth  at  the  same 
time.  On  a  soil  containing  potash,  wheat  and  tobacco 
may  be  reared  in  succession,  because  the  latter  plant 
does  not  require  the  phosphates  which  the  wheat  has  ap- 
propriated to  itself.  Now,  tobacco  requires  only  alkalies, 
and  food  containing  nitrogen.  When  we  growdifl^erent 
plants  in  the  same  soil,  for  several  years  in  succession, 
the  first  of  which  leaves  behind  that  which  the  second, 
and  the  second  that  which  the  third  may  require,  the 


30  ELEMENTS    OF 

soil  will  be  a  fruitful  one  for  all  the  three  kinds  of  pro- 
duce. If  the  first  plant,  for  example,  be  wheat,  which 
consumes  the  greatest  part  of  the  silicate  of  potash  in 
the  soil,  the  plants  which  succeed  it  should  be  such  as 
require  little  potash,  as  turnips  or  potatoes.  The  wheat 
lands  may  be  sown  again  with  wheat,  advantageously, 
after  the  fourth  year.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  dur- 
ing the  interval  of  three  years,  the  soil  will,  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  atmosphere,  be  rendered  capable  of  again 
yielding  silicate  of  potash  in  sufficient  quantity  for  wheat. 
Whether  this  process  can  be  artificially  anticipated,  by 
supplying  the  exhausted  ingredient  to  the  soil,  is  a  fur- 
ther, and  most  interesting  inquiry. 

In  a  four-years'  course  of  cropping,  the  crops  gathered 
amounted,  per  acre,  to — 

1st  year,  Tiiniips^  25  tons  of  bulbs,  and  7  tons  of 
tops. 

2d  year,  Barletj^  38  bushels,  and  a  ton  of  straw. 

3d  year,  Clover  and  Rye  Grass,  1  ton  of  each  in 
hay. 

4th  year,  Wheat,  25  bushels,  and  2  tons  of  straw. 

Supposing  none  of  the  crops  to  be  eaten  upon  the  land, 
the  quantity  of  inorganic  matter  contained  in  the  above 

would  be  as  follows : — 


lbs. 

lbs. 

Potash. 

281 

Silica,                   318 

Soda,  ' 

130 

Sulphuric  acid,     HI  , 

)  in  combination 

Lime, 

242 

Phosphoric  acid,    (5 J 

>  with  the  earths 

Magnesia 

,    42 

Clorine,                   39  ^ 

\  and  alkalies ; 

Alumina. 

11 

making    a   gross  weight  of  1240  pounds,  or  about  ele- 
ven hundred  weight. 

A  siill  clearer  idea  of  the  importance  and  quantities 
of  these  organic  matters,  may  be  obtained  by  a  consider- 
ation of  the  fact,  that  if  we  were  to  carry  olf  the  entire 
of  the  above  produce,  and  return  none  of  it  again  in  the 
shape  of  manure,  (supposing  also  that  we  could  stop  the 


PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE.  31 

bencfical  agency  of  the  atmosphere  during  that  period,) 
we  must,  or  ought,  instead  of  tliat  produce, — if  the  land 
is  to  be  restored  to  its  original  condition, — add  to  each 
acre,  every  four  years,  300  pounds  of  pearl  ashes,  or  po- 
tasii ;  440  of  carbonate  of  soda ;  65  of  common  salt ; 
240  uf  quick  lime  ;  250  of  sulphate  of  magnesia,  that  is, 
Epsom  salts  ;  84  of  alum  ;  and  260  bone  dust ;  making 
1729  pounds  of  sohd  saline  matter. 

The  fertility  of  a  soil  cannot  remain  long  unimpaired, 
unless  we  replace  in  it  all  those  substances  of  which  it 
has  been  deprived.  We  could  keep  our  fields  in  a  con- 
stant state  of  ferfiiity,  by  replacing,  every  year,  as  much 
as  we  remove  from  them  m  the  form  of  produce  ;  and, 
be  it  remembered,  that  our  cultivated  corn  plants,  and 
bulbous  roots,  are  not  like  forest  plants  and  trees  :  the 
quantity  of  nutriment  they  require,  and  take  up,  to  bring 
them  to  perfection  and  perpetuate  the  race,  is  far  more 
than  the  unaided  elements  around  them  could  supply. 
"Wheat,  for  instance,  as  a  natural  production  of  the  soil, 
appears  to  have  been  a  very  small  grass ;  and  the  case 
is  still  more  remarkable  with  the  apple  and  the  plum. 
The  common  crab  seems  to  have  been  the  parent  of  all 
our  apples.  Potatoes  and  turnips,  in  their  wild  or  nat- 
ural state,  are  unfit  for  food  ;  and  two  fruits  can  scarce- 
ly be  conceived  of  more  different  in  color,  size,  and  appear- 
ance, than  the  wild  plum  and  the  rich  magnum  bonum. 
We  have  to  contend,  then,  with  two  important  differ- 
ences :  First,  That  wheat  or  turnips  are  not  natural 
productions;  and,  secoridly,  That  because  they  are  not, 
they  drain  or  exhaust  unassisted  soil  faster  tlian  the 
wild  plants  of  the  forest ;  nor  will  they  thrive  long,  if 
denied  that  assistance  from  artificial  nutriment,  which 
nature  cannot  supply  in  suflficient  quantity. 

It  is  evident,  then,  tliat  an  iucrease  of  fertility,  and 
consequent  increase  of  crop,  can  only  be  expected  when 
we  add  more  to  the  soil  of  the  proper  material,  (and  no 
other,)  than  we  take  way.  And  soil  will  partially  re- 
gain itself  by  lying  fallow  :  this  is  owing  to  atmospheric 
action,  and  the  conversion  of  the  roots  and  stalks  into 
hunms.     But  though  the  quantity  of  decaying  vegeta- 


32  ELEMENTS    OP 

ble  humus  in  a  soil  may  be  increased  to  a  certain  de- 
gree by  cultivation  and  alternate  cropping',  still  there 
cannot  be  the  smallest  doubt,  that  a  soil  must  (without 
help)  ultimately  lose  those  of  its  constituents,  which  are 
removed  in  the  seeds,  roots,  and  leaves  of  the  plants 
raised  upon  it. 

To  prevent  this  loss,  and,  as  a  further  object,  to  ena- 
ble us  to  raise  increased  quantities  of  productions,  de- 
manding more  sustenance  than  the  land  will  naturally 
yield,  is  the  object  of  the  application  of  the  various  sub- 
stances used  as  manures.  They  will  prove  useless,  in- 
jurious, or  valuable,  precisely  as  they  are  accurately  or 
inaccurately  adapted  to  meet  the  deficiency. 

Land,  when  not  employed  in  raising  food  for  animals 
or  man,  should,  at  least,  be  applied  to  the  purpose  of 
raising  manure  for  itself;  and  this,  to  a  certain  extent, 
may  be  effected  by  means  of  green  crops,  which,  by 
their  decomposition,  not  only  add  to  the  amount  of  veg- 
etable mould  contained  in  the  soil,  but  supply  the  alka- 
lies that  would  be  found  in  their  ashes.  That  the  soil 
should  become  richer  by  this  burial  of  a  crop,  than  it 
was  before  the  seed  of  the  crop  was  sown,  will  be  under- 
stood by  recollecting  that  three-fourths  of  the  whole  or- 
ganic matter  buried  has  been  derived  from  the  air  : 
that  by  this  process  of  plougjiing  in,  the  vegetable  mat- 
ter is  more  equally  diffused  through  the  whole  soil,  and 
therefore  more  easily  and  rapidly  decomposed  ;  and  that 
by  its  gradual  decomposition,  ammonia  and  nitric  acid 
are  certainly  degenerated,  though  not  so  largely  as 
when  animal  matters  are  employed.  He  who  neglects 
the  green  sods,  and  crops  of  weeds  that  flourish  by  his 
hedgerows  and  ditches,  overlooks  an  important  natural 
means  of  wealth.  Left  to  themselves,  they  ripen  their 
seeds,  exhausting  the  soil,  and  sowing  them  annually 
in  his  fields  :  collected  in  compost  heaps,  they  add  ma- 
terially to  his  yearly  crops  of  grain. 


NATURE  AND  CORRECT  USE  OP  THE  EXCREMENTS  OP 
ANIMALS  CONSIDERED  AS  MANURE;  THE  MODE  OP 
ITS  ACTION  AND  PRESERVATION.  BONE  DUST,  AND 
DEAD    ANIMAL    MATTER. 

One  practical  farmer  applies,  indiscriminately,  any 
fertilizing  material  to  his  land  in  any  state ;  another 
allows  violent  fermentation  to  reduce  his  mixture  of 
Straw  and  manure  to  one-half  its  weight — during  which 
operation  much  gaseous  ammonia  is  disengaged  and 
lost,  which,  if  retained,  or  supplied  to  the  soil,  would 
have  proved  extremely  serviceable.  Both  methods  can- 
not be  right  in  all  cases. 

Besides  the  dissipation  of  gaseous  matter,  when  fer- 
mentation is  pushed  to  the  extreme,  there  is  another 
disadvantage  in  the  loss  of  heat,  which,  if  excited  in 
the  soil  instead  of  the  dunghill,  is  useful  in  promoting 
the  springing  of  the  seed,  and  in  assisting  the  plant  in 
the  first  stage  of  its  growth,  when  it  is  most  feeble  and 
most  liable  to  disease  ;  and  the  decomposition  of  manure 
in  the  soil  must  be  particulaily  favorable  to  the  wheat 
crop,  in  preserving  a  genial  temperature  beneath  the 
surface  late  in  autumn  and  during  winter.  These 
views  are  in  accordance  with  a  well-known  principle  in 
chemistry,— that  in  all  cases  of  decomposition,  substances 
combine  much  more  readily  at  the  moment  of  their  dis- 
engagement than  after  they  have  been  some  time  per- 
fectly formed  and  set  at  liberty.  And  in  fermentation 
beneath  the  soil,  the  fluid  matter  produced  is  applied 
instantly,  even  while  it  is  warm,  to  the  young  organs  of 
the  rising  plant;  and,  consequently,  is  more  likely  to  be 
efficient,  than  in  manure  that  has  gone  through  the  pro- 


34  ELFMENTS   OF 

cess,  and  of  which  all  the  principles  have  entered  into 
new  combinations. 

It  is  certainly  a  matter  of  indifference  whether  we 
employ  excrements,  ashes,  or  bones,  in  carrying  out  the 
principle  of  restoring  to  the  soil  those  substances  which 
have  been  taken  from  it  by  the  previous  crop.  But, 
unless  we  know  accurately  what  are  those  matters  that 
have  been  actually  removed,  how  is  it  possible  to  supply, 
otherwise  than  at  random  guess,  the  deficiency?  Fer- 
mented manure  may  be  really  useful,  if  no  nitrogen  be 
demanded.  A  time  will  come  when  fields  will  be  ma- 
nured with  saline  solutions,  with  the  ashes  of  burnt 
straw,  or  with  salts  of  phosphoric  acid  prepared  in  chemi- 
cal manufactories.  The  same  mixed  mass  of  materials 
may  be  useful  in  one  state,  less  so  in  another  and  under 
other  circumstances.  A  knowledge  of  the  actual  wants 
of  the  land,  and  of  the  exact  composition  of  the  proposed 
manure,  is  obviously  necessary  to  enable  the  farmer 
to  adapt  the  one  to  the  other  as  a  requisite  and  fitting 
remedy.  If  our  object  be  the  development  of  the  seeds 
of  plants,  we  know  they  contain  nitrogen.  Our  manure 
then  must  be  rich  in  this  material.  If,  by  fermentation, 
ammonia  be  formed  in  the  manure — if  it  become  dry, 
rotten,  and  nearly  devoid  of  smell,  having  lost  its  pre- 
vious heat — although  it  may  cut  better  with  the  spade, 
we  may  be  sure  it  has  lost  its  nitrogen,  and,  conse- 
quently, as  far  as  our  object  is  concerned,  (the  nutriment 
of  the  seed.)  nearly  lost  its  utility.  The  leaves,  which 
by  their  action  on  the  air,  nourish  the  stem  and  woody 
fibre — the  roots,  from  which  the  leaves  are  formed — 
in  short,  every  part  of  tlie  structure  of  a  plant — contains 
nitrogen  in  small  and  varying  proportions.  But  the 
ijeeds  are  always  rich  in  nitrogen. 

The  most  imjiortant  object,  then,  of  farming  opera- 
lions,  at  least  as  far  as  grain  is  concerned,  is  the  supply 
of  nitrogen  to  grain  plants  in  a  state  capable  of  being 
taken  up  by  them — the  production,  therefore,  of  manures 
containing  the  most  of  this  element.  Gypsum  and  ni- 
trate of  soda  are  as  properly  termed  manures,  as  farm- 
yard dung,    bone-dust,  or   night-soil;    but  our  present 


PRACTICAL     AGRICULTURE.  35 

inquiry  is,  what  class  of  substances  contain  and  yield  to 
grain-plaiits  most  nitrogen  ?  Nature,  by  the  ordinary 
action  of  the  atmosphere,  furnishes  as  much  nitrogen 
to  a  piant  as  is  necessary  to  its  bare  existence.  But 
plants  do  not  exist  for  themselves  alone :  the  greater 
number  of  animals  depend  upon  the  vegetable  world 
for  food  ;  and,  by  a  wise  adjustment  of  nature,  plants 
have  the  remarkable  power  of  converting,  to  a  certain 
degree,  all  the  nitrogen  offered  to  them  into  nutriment 
for  animals.  We  may  furnish  a  plant  with  carbonic 
acid,  and  all  the  materials  which  it  may  require  for  its 
mere  life ;  we  may  supply  it  with  vegetable  matter  in  a 
state  of  decay  in  the  most  abundant  quantity ;  but  it 
will  not  attain  complete  development  unless  nitroo-en 
be  afforded  to  it  by  the  supply  of  suitable  manure  :°an 
herb  will  indeed  be  formed,  but  its  seeds  or  grain  will 
be  imperfect  and  feeble. 

But  when,  with  proper  manure,  we  supply  nitrogen 
in  addition  to  what  the  plant  would  derive  from  natural 
sources,  we  enable  it  to  attract  from  the  air  the  carboa 
which  is  necessary  for  its  nutrition  ;  that  is,  when  that 
in  the  soil  is  not  sufficient,  we  afford  it  a  means  of  fixing 
the  atmospheric  carbon. 

There  are  two  principal  descriptions  of  manure,  the 
beneficial  agency  of  which  is  deriveable  almost  exclu- 
sively from  the  large  quantity  of  nitrogen  they  yield. 

These  are  the  solid  as  well  as  fluid  excrements  of  man 
and  animals. 

Urine  is  employed  as  manure,  either  singly,  in  its 
liquid  state,  or  with  the  faeces  which  are  impregnated 
with  it.  It  is  the  urine  contained  in  night-soil  which 
gives  it  the  property  of  giving  off  ammonia,  a  property 
which  the  discharges  from  the  bowels  possess  only  in  a 
very  slight  degree.  Liquid  manures  act  chiefly  through 
the  saline  substances  they  hold  in  solution  ;  while  the 
solid  manures,  even  of  animal  origin,  contain  insoluble 
matters  which  decay  slowly  in  the  soil,  and  there  become 
useful  only  after  a  time.  When  we  examine  what  sub- 
otances  we  add  to  a  soil  by  supplying  it  with  urine,  we 
find  that  this  liquid  contains  in   solution   ammoniacal 


38 


ELEMENTS    OP 


salts,  uric  acid,  (a  substance  itself  containing  much  ni- 
trogen,) and  salts  of  phosplioric  acid. 
Human  urine  consists,  in  1000  parts,  of 

Water .932 

Urea,  and  other  organic  matters  contain-  ^  ^q 

ing  nitrogen  .         .         .         .  ) 

Phospliates  of  ammonia,  soda,  lime,  and  )  n 

magnesia ( 

Sulphates  of  soda  and  ammonia        .         .  7 

Sal  ammoniac  and  common  salt            .  6 


1000 

In  manure  reservoirs,  well  constructed  and  protected 
frpm  evaporation,  tlie  carbonate  of  ammonia,  which 
forms  in  consequence  of  putrefaction,  is  retained  in  so- 
lution ;  and  when  the  putrified  urine  is  spread  over  the 
land,  a  part  of  ibis  ammonia  will  escape  with  the  water 
which  evaporates.  On  account  of  the  formation  of  car- 
bonate of  ammonia  in  putnd  urine,  it  becomes  alkaUne, 
thuugh  naturall}'  acid  m  its  recent  state  ;  and  when  ihis 
carbonate  of  ammonia  is  lost  by  being  volatilized  in  the 
air,  (which  happens  in  mo.-t  cases,)  the  loss  sufTtired  is 
nearly  equal  to  one-half  of  the  uiine  employed.  So 
that,  if  we  fix  the  anmionia,  (by  combining  it  with  some 
acid  which  forms  with  it  a  compound  not  volatile,)  we 
increase  its  action  two-fold.  Now  the  carbonate  of 
amnjonia  formed  by  the  putrefaciion  of  urine,  can  be 
fixed,  or  deprived  ol  its  volatility,  in  many  ways. 

If,  for  instance,  a  field  be  strewed  with  gypsum,  or 
plaster  of  Paris,  (in  clieinir-al  langnnge,  sulplfaie  of  lime.) 
and  thf^n  spiitikietl  with  urine,  or  the  drainiiigs  uf  the 
cow-shed,  a  douMe  exchange  or  (lccom|  o-iiio:i  takes 
place.  I^ul[)hate  of  lime  and  carl)onatti  of  ammonia 
become  convicted  into  carbonate  of  lime,  (that  is,  chalk,) 
and  sulphate  of  ammonia  ;  and  this  b.'caiise  sulphuric 
acid  has  a  great.^-  atlinity  for  ammonia  than  it  has  for 
lime.  This  sulphate  of  ammonia  will  remain  in  the 
soil — it  will  not  evaporate. 

If  a  basin  containing  spirit  of  jalt,   or  muriatic  acid, 


PRACTICAL     AGRICULTURE. 


sr 


be  left  a  few  weeks  in  a  close  stable  or  privy,  so  that  ils 
surface  is  in  free  conininnication  with  the  ammoniacal 
vapors  that  rise  from  b('h)\v,  crystals  of  muiiate  of  airi- 
monia,  or  common  sal-ammoniac,  will  soon  be  visible, 
as  an  incrustation  about  its  ediies.  The  ammonia  that 
escapes  in  this  way  is  not  only  entirely  lost  as  far  as 
vegetation  is  concerned  ;  it  works  also  a  slow  but  not  less 
certain  destruction  of  the  mortar  and  plaster  of  the 
building;  for,  when  in  contact  with  the  lime^of  the 
mortar,  ammonia  is  convxMted  into  nitric  acid,  which 
gradually  dissolves  the  lime.  There  are  few  school-boys 
who  have  not  picked  out  crystals  of  nitrate  of  |)otass, 
or  saltpetre,  from  an  old  brick  wall;  and  in  this  in- 
stance the  atmosphere  has  yielded  the  ammonia. 

The  offensive  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  close  stables 
is  very  injurious  to  the  eyes  and  lungs  of  liorses,  as  the 
army  and  veterinary  surgeons  are  well  able  to  testify. 
They  adopt  measures  to  carry  it  off  by  ventilation  and 
cle'anliness.  If  the  floors  or  stables  of  cow-sheds  were 
strewed  with  common  gypsum,  they  would  lose  all  their 
offensive  and  injurious  smell,  and  none  of  the  ammonia 
which  forms  could  be  lost,  but  would  be  retained  in  a 
condition  serviceable  as  manure.  This  composition — 
swept  from  the  stable  door — nearly  constitutes  what  is 
sold  under  the  denomination  of  2irate.  Manufacturers 
of  this  material,  state,  that  three  or  four  hundred  weight 
of  urate  form  sufficient  manure  for  an  acre.  A  far  more 
proiriising  adventure  for  a  practical  farmer  will  be  to  go 
to  some  expense  in  saving  his  own  liquid  manure,  and, 
after  mixing  it  with  burnt  cypsum,  to  lay  it  abundantly 
upon  his  grain-lands :  for,  in  this  way,  he  may  use  as 
much  gypsum  as  will  (ibsorb  the  whole  of  the  urine. 
Now,  in  the  manufacture  of  urate,  the  proportion  of 
10  pounds  is  employed  to  every  7  gallons — allowing  the 
mixture  (occasionally  stirred)  to  ^tand  some  time,  imur- 
ing  off  the  liquid,  and  with  it  nearly  all  its  saline  con- 
tents, except  the  annnonia.  Urate,  therefore,  can  never 
present  all  the  virtues  of  the  urine— 100  poimds  of  urate 
containing  no  greater  weight  of  saline  and  organic  mat- 
ter than  10  gallons  of  urine. 


'38  ELEMENTS   OF  ' 

From  the  foregoing  analysis  it  would  appear,  that 
1000  pounds  of  human  uiine  contain  no  less  than  68 
pounds  of  dry  feriilizing  matter  of  the  richest  quahty, 
worth,  at  the  present  rale  of  selhng  artificial  manures 
in  this  country,  (England,)  twenty  shillings  per  hundred 
weight.  Suppose  we  say  that  the  liquid  and  solid  ex- 
crements of  one  human  being  amount  on  an  average  to 
a  pound  and  a  half  daily,  then  in  one  year  they  will 
amount, to  547  pounds  ;  which,  at  the  rate  of  three  per 
cent,  of  contained  nitrogen,  would  yield  sixteen  pounds 
of  that  material  for  the  land — a  quantity  sufficient  to 
supply  enough  for  eight  hundred  pounds  of  wheat,  rye, 
or  oats,  or  for  nine  hundred  pounds  of  barley.  As  each 
person  in  reality  voids  at  least  one  thousand  pounds  or 
pints  of  urine  in  a  year,  the  national  waste  incurred  in 
this  form  amounts,  at  the  above  valuation,  to  twelve 
shillings  a  head  upon  every  individual  of  the  whole 
population.  And  if  five  tons  of  farm-yard  manure  per 
acre,  yearly,  will  keep  a  farm  in  good  order,  four  hun- 
dred weight  of  the  solid  matter  of  urine  would  probably 
have  an  equal  effect ;  in  other  words,  the  excrements  of 
a  single  individual  are  more  than  sufficient  to  yield  the 
requisite  nitrogen  to  an  acre  of  land,  in  order  to  enable 
it  (with  the  assistance  of  the  nitrogen  absorbed  naturally 
from  the  atmosphere)  to  produce  the  richest  possible 
yearly  crop.  Every  town  and  farm  might  thus  supply 
itself  with  the  manure,  which,  besides  containing  the 
most  nitrogen,  contains  also  the  most  phosphates ;  and 
if  an  alternation  of  the  crops  were  adopted,  they  would 
be  most  abundant.  By  using  at  the  same  time  bones 
and  wood-ashes,  the  excrements  of  animals  might  be 
complettly  (hspcnsc  d  with.  ISo  that  the  artificial,  min- 
eral, or  chemical  manures  are  no  imj)crfect  subi^titute^', 
if  a})plied  judiciously. 

The  urine  alone  di^-chargcd  into  rivers  or  sewers  by  a 
town  population  of  lO.Odll  inhabitants,  would  supply  ma- 
nure to  a  farm  of  1500  acres,  yielding  a  return  of  4500 
quarters  of  grain,  or  an  e((uivalent  produce  of  other  crops. 
8o  mucli  value  is  attached  to  human  excrements  by  the 
Chinese,  that  the  laws  of  the  country  forbid  that  any  of 


PRACTICAL     AGRICULTURE.  39 

them  should  be  thrown  away ;  and  reservoirs  are  placed 
in  every  house,  where  they  are  collected  with  the  utmost 
care.  No  other  kind  of  manure  is  used  for  their  grain- 
fields. 

Human  urine  contains  a  greater  variety  of  constituents 
than  any  other  species  examined.  Urea,  uric  acid,  and 
another  acid  similar  to  it  in  nature,  called  rosacic  acid, 
acetic  acid,  albumen,  gelatine,  a  resinous  matter,  and 
its  various  salts,  are  all  valuable  to  the  land,  inasmuch 
as  from  the  land  they  or  their  elements  have  been  origi- 
nally derived.  The  urine  of  animals  that  feed  exclusively 
on  flesh,  contains  more  animal  matter,  and  consequently 
more  nitrogen,  than  that  of  vegetable  feeders — whence 
it  is  more  apt  to  run  into  the  putrefactive  process,  and 
disengage  ammonia.  In  proportion  as  there  are  more 
gelatine  and  albumen  in  urine,  so  in  proportion  does  it 
putrefy  more  rapidly.  Thus,  then,  all  urine  contains 
the  essential  elements  of  vegetables  in  a  state  of  solu- 
tion ;  and  that  will  be  the  best  for  manure  which  con- 
tains most  albumen,  gelatine,  and  urea.  Putrid  urine 
abounds  in  ammoniacal  salts,  and  is  only  less  active 
as  a  manure  than  fresh  urine,  because  of  the  portion  of 
ammonia  which  is  continually  exhaling  into  the  atmos- 
phere. 

As  to  the  urine  of  cattle,  it  contains  less  water  than 
that  of  man,  varying  with  the  kind  of  food  on  which  the 
animal  is  fed.  A  cow  will  secrete  and  discharge  from 
two  thousand  to  three  thousand  gallons  of  urine  a  year; 
and  this  quantity  will  contain  at  least  from  1200  to 
1500  pounds  of  dry  solid  saline  matters,  worth  from  fifty 
to  sixty  dollars. 

The  urine  of  the  cow  is  particularly  rich  in  salts  of 
potash,  but  contains  very  little  soda.  The  urine  of  swine 
contains  a  large  quantity  of  the  phosphates  of  ammonia 
and  magnesia.  That  of  the  horse  contains  less  nitrogen 
and  phosphates  than  that  of  man, 

The  fertilizing  powers  of  animal  manures,  whether 
fluid  or  solid,  is  dependent,  like  that  of  the  soil  itself, 
upon  the  happy  admixture  of  a  great  number,  if  not  of 
all,  those  substances  which  are  required  by  plants  in  the 


/ 


4B  ELEMENTS    OP 

universal  cultivation  they  receive  from  the  industry  and 
skill  of  man,  more  especially  upon  the  large  proportion 
of  nitrogen  they  contain.  The  amount  of  this  laiter 
material  affords  the  readiest  test  by  which  their  agricul 
tural  value,  compared  with  other  matters  and  with  that 
of  each  other,  can  be  tolerably  well  esiimalcd. 

Ordinary  farm-yard  manure,  in  its  recent  state,  con- 
tains a  given  proportion  of  nitrogen  ;  but  fifteen  pounds 
of  blood  would  yield  as  much  nitrogen  as  one  hundred 
pounds  of  farm-yard  compost.  If  dried  blood  were  ta- 
ken, four  pounds  would  he  sufficient;  three  pounds  of 
feathers,  three  of  liorn  shavings,  five  of  pigeons' dung,  or 
even  two  and  a  half  of  woollen  rags,  would  counterpoise 
one  hundred  cf  the  frst-named  material.  Sixteen  would 
be  the  equivalent  number  for  the  urine  of  the  horse, 
ninety-one  that  of  the  cow%  seventy-three  for  horse-dimg, 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  for  cow-dung;  while  the 
mixed  excrements  of  either  animal  would  correspond 
with  the  fact,  that  the  discharges  of  the  cow  offer  no 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  horse, 

Besides  their  general  relative  value,  namely,  as  to  the 
proportions  of  nitrogen  they  contain,  the  above  matters 
have  a  further  special  value,  dependent  upon  the  diver- 
sity of  saline  and  other  organic  matters  which  they  sever- 
ally contain.  Thus,  three  of  dried  flesh  are  equal  to 
five  of  pigeons' dung,  as  far  as  nitrogen  is  concerned ; 
but*  then  pigeons'  dung  contains  a  quantity  of  bone, 
earth,  and  saline  matter,  scarcely  present  in  the  former. 
Hence,  the  dung  of  fowls  will  benefit  vegetation  in  some 
instances  where  even  horse-flesh— ordinarily  regarded 
as  a  strong  manure — would  fail.  And  why  ?  Evidently 
because,  if  saline  matters  are  deficient  in  the  soil,  an 
excessive  supply  of  nitrogen  will  not  serve  as  their  sub- 
stitute. So  the  licjuid  excretions  contain  nuich  impor- 
tant saline  matter  not  present  in  solid  dung,  nor  in  such 
substances  as  horn,  hair,  or  wool ;  and  therefore  each 
must  be  capable  of  exercising  its  own  peculiar  influence, 
and  be  comparatively  useless,  if  deficient  of  those  mat- 
ters which  are  also  found  wanting — deficient,  yet  neces- 
sary in  the  soil.     This  afl^ords  the   reason   why  no  o?ie 


PRACTICAL     AGRICULTURE.  41 

manure  can  long  answer  on  the  same  land  ;  it  can  only 
sup[)lv  the  materials;  it  contains.  When  all  the  sihcate 
of  potasii  in  grain-fields  is  exhausted,  urine  will  not,  can- 
not, supply  the  deficiency,  because  it  contains  no  silicate 
of  potash.  So  long  as  the  land  remained  rich  in  this 
material,  urine  or  blood  would  supply  the  requisite  ni- 
trogen. Hence,  in  all  ages  and  countries,  the  habit  of 
employing  mixed  manures  and  artificial  composts  has 
been  universally  diffused.  What  is  wanting  is  a  more 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  precise  deficiency  at  any 
given  moment,  and  a  consequent  saving  of  capital  from 
unnecessary  waste,  together  with  an  immense  increase 
in  fertility,  as  the  reward  of  so  accurate  an  adaptation 
of  means  and  ends.  The  knowledge  of  a  disease  is  es- 
sential to  the  correct  application  of  a  remedy. 

It  is  by  no  means  difficult  to  prevent  the  destructive 
fermentation  and  heating  of  farm-yard  compost.  The 
surface  should  be  defended  from  the  oxygen  of  the  at- 
mosphere. A  compact  marl,  or  a  tenacious  clay,  offers 
the  best  protection  against  the  air;  and  before  the  dung 
is  covered  over,  or,  as  it  were,  sealed  up,  it  should  be 
dried  as  much  as  possible.  If  the  dung  be  found  at 
any  time  to  heat  strongly,  it  should  be  turned  over, 
and  cooled  by  exposure  to  air.  Watering  dung-hills  is 
sometimes  recommended  for  checking  the  process  of 
putrefaction,  and  the  consequent  escape  of  ammonia ; 
but  this  practice  is  not  consistent  with  correct  chemistry. 
It  may  cool  the  dung  for  a  short  time  ;  but  moisture  is 
a  principal  agent  in  all  processes  of  decomposition.  Wa- 
ter, or  moisture,  is  as  necessary  to  the  change  as  air; 
and  to  supply  it  to  reeking  dung,  is  to  supply  an  agent 
which  will  hasten  its  decay. 

If  a  thermometer,  plunged  into  the  dung,  does  not  rise 
much  above  blood-heat,  there  is  little  danger  of  the 
escape  of  ammonia.  When  a  piece  of  paper,  moistened 
with  spirit  of  salt,  or  muriatic  acid,  held  over  the  steams 
arising  from  a  dung-hill,  gives  dense  fumes,  it  is  a  cer- 
tain test  that  decomposition  is  going  too  far;  for  this 
indicates  that  ammonia  is  not  only  formed,   but  is  es- 


4ai  ELEMENTS   OF 

caping  to  unite  with  the  acid  in   the  shape  of  sal-am- 
moniac. 

When  dunor  is  to  be  preserved  for  any  time,  the  situ- 
ation in  which  it  is  kept  is  of  importance.  It  should,  if 
possible,  be  defended  from  the  sun.  To  preserve  it 
under  sheds  would  be  of  great  use.  or  to  make  the  site 
of  a  dung-hill  on  the  north  side  of  a  wall.  The  floor  on 
which  the  dung  is  heaped,  should,  if  possible,  be  paved 
with  flat  stones  ;  and  there  should  be  a  little  inclination 
from  each  side  towards  the  centre,  in  which  there  should 
be  drains,  connected  with  a  small  well,  furnished  with 
,a  pump,  by  which  any  fluid  matter  may  be  collected 
for  the  use  of  the  land.  It  too  often  happens,  that  a 
heavy,  thick,  extractive  fluid  is  suffered  to  drain  away 
from  the  dung-hill,  so  as  to  be  entirely  lost  to  the  farm. 

Night-soil,  it  is  well  known,  is  a  very  powerful  ma- 
nure, and  very  liable  to  decompose.  Human  excrements 
diflfer  in  their  composition,  but  always  abound  in  nitro- 
gen, hydrogen,  carbon,  and  oxygen.  From  the  analysis 
of  Berzelius,  it  appears  that  a  part  of  it  is  always  soluble 
in  water;  and  in  whatever  state  it  is  used,  whether  re- 
cent or  decomposed,  it  supplies  abundant  food  to  plants. 
But  this  aflfords  no  excuse  for  its  misapplication  in  any 
other  condition  than  that  which  13  most  profitable.  It 
varies,  no  doubt,  in  richness  with  the  food  of  the  inhabit-, 
ants  of  each  district — chiefly  with  the  quantity  of  animal 
food  they  consume  ;  but  when  dry,  no  other  solid  ma- 
nure, weight  for  weight,  can  probably  be  compared  with 
it  in  general  eflicacy.  The  soluble  and  saline  matters 
it  contains  are  made  up  from  the  constituents  of  the  food 
we  eat;  of  course,  it  contains  most  of  those  elementary 
substances  which  are  necessary  to  the  growth  of  the 
plants  on  which  we  live.  The  disagreeable  smell  of 
night-soil  may  be  destroyed  by  quick-lime.  If  exposed 
to  the  air  in  thin  layers  strewed  over  with  lime,  in  fine 
weather,  it  speedily  drie.s,  is  easily  pulverized,  and,  in 
this  slate,  may  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as  rape- 
cake,  and  delivered  into  the  furrow  with  the  seed.  If 
night-soil  be  treated  in  a  proper  manner,  so  as  to  remove 


r 


PRACTICAL     AGRICULTURE.  43 

the  inoisture  it  contains,  without  permitting:  the  escape 
of  its  ammonia,  it  may  be  put  into  such  a  form  as  will 
allow  it  1 0  be  transported  even  to  great  dih>tances.  This 
is  already  attempted  in  many  places ;  and  tiie  prepara- 
tion of  human  excrements  for  exportation  constitutes 
not  an  unimportant  branch  of  industry.  But  the  man- 
ner in  which  this  is  done,  is  not  always  the  most  ju- 
dicious. 

It  is  quite  certain  that  the  vegetable  constituents  of 
the  excrements  with  which  we  manure  our  fields,  can- 
not be  entirely  without  influence  upon  the  growth  of 
the  crops  on  them  ;  for  they  will  decay,  and  thus  furnish 
carbonic  acid  to  the  young  plants.  But  it  cannot  be 
imagined  that  their  influence  is  very  great,  when  it  is 
considered  that  a  good  soil  is  manured  only  once  every 
six  or  seven  years;  that  the  quantity  of  carbon  thus 
given  to  the  land  corresponds  only  to  5  per  cent,  of  what 
is  removed  in  the  form  of  herbs,  straw,  or  grain  ;  and 
further,  that  the  rain-water  received  by  a  soil  contains 
much  more  carbon  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  than 
these  vegetable  constituents  of  animal  excrement. 

The  peculiar  action,  then,  of  solid,  as  opposed  to  fluid, 
animal  excrements,  is  limited  to  their  inorganic  consti- 
tuents, rather  than  to  the  presence  of  the  partially 
changed  vegetable  or  organized  matter  which  they  con- 
tain. Horse-dung  contains  a  large  portion  of  such  par- 
tially altered  vegetable  matter;  and  the  reason  why 
night-soil  is  a  more  powerful  manure,  is  that,  relatively, 
it  contains  less  vegetable  matter,  while  nitrogen  is  more 
abundant  ;  and  this,  principally,  because  its  weight  is 
materially  made  up  by  the  liquid  excrement,  or  urine, 
always  forming  part  of  its  composition.  The  restoration 
of  inorganic  matter  to  the  land,  is  the  chief  value  arising 
from  the  application  of  the  dung  of  cattle.  A  certain 
amount  of  inorganic  matter  is  removed  with  every  crop. 
If  we  manure  that  land  with  the  dung  of  the  cow  or 
sheep,  we  restore  to  the  surface  silicate  of  potash,  and 
some  salts  of  phosphoric  acid.  If  we  use  horse-dung, 
we  supply,  chiefly,  phosphate  of  magnesia  and  silicate 
of  potash.     In  the  straw  which  has  served  as  litter,  we 


Afk  ELEMENTS    OF 

add  a  further  quantity  of  silicate  of  potash,   and  phos 
phates,   which,   if  the  straw    be   aheady   putrified,  are 
exactly  in  the  same  state  as  before  ihey  formed  part  of 
the  crop  which  yieided  them. 

But,  if  we  use  human  excrements,  in  addition  to  the 
phosphates  of  hme  and  magnesia,  we  supply  a  larger 
proportion  of  compounds  of  nitrogen,  essential  to  ih^ 
development  of  those  parts  of  plants  upon  which  human 
beings  are  accustomed  to  feed  :  and,  by  a  wise  ordina- 
tion, grain-plants  are  found  associated  with  human 
dwelhngs — in  other  words,  the  family  of  man  having 
selected  such  spots  on  the  earth's  surface,  as  are  fitted 
for  the  growth  of  grain,  animal  manure  is  always  at 
hand  in  quantity  for  its  artificial  cultivation ;  thus  re- 
storing, through  the  feculent  discharges  of  man  and  ani- 
mals resident  on  the  spot,  precisely  those  materials  which 
the  process  of  growth  has  removed  from  the  soil. 

Cow-dung  is  not  incorrectly  said  to  be  "cold;"  so 
much  of  the  saline,  nutritive,  and  other  organic  matters 
from  the  cow,  pass  off  almost  exclusively  with  her  urine, 
that  her  dung  does  not  readily  heat  and  run  into  putre- 
faction. Still,  mixed  with  other  manures,  or  well  dif- 
fused through  the  soil,  its  vegetable  matter  is  not  use- 
less. It  loses  more  than  any  other  similar  substance  i^ 
drying.  The  dung  of  pigs  is  soft  and  cold,  like  that  of 
the  cow — containing,  like  it,  nearly  80  per  cent,  of  wa- 
ter. Mixed  with  other  manures,  it  may  be  applied  to 
any  crop — but  is  of  very  variable  quality,  owing  to  the 
variety  of  food  of  the  animal. 

The  horse  is  fed,  generally,  on  less  liquid  food,  less 
succulent  and  watery,  than  that  of  oxen.  He  discharges 
less  urine ;  hence  his  dung  is  richer  in  animalized  mat- 
ter ;  or,  adopting  the  figurative  language  of  the  farmer, 
it  is  hotter,  and,  indeed,  runs  more  readily  into  the  pu- 
trefactive fermentation. 

If  the  solid  excrements  of  animals  are  chiefly  valuable 
for  the  saline,  earthy,  and  inorganic  constituents  they 
restore  to  the  soil  which  has  yielded  them,  it  will  hi 
readily  inferred,  that  instead  of  dung  or  night-soil,  other 
substances,  containing  their  peculiar  ingredients,  may 


PRACTICAL     AGRICULTURE.  *^ 

be  substituted.  One  hundred  tons  of  fresh  horse-dung, 
if  dried,  would  leave  only  from  25  to  30  tons  of  sohd 
matter,  the  rest  being  only  water;  and  if  (his  dried  mat- 
ter (itself  only  one-fourth  of  the  original  weight)  were 
burnt,  so  as  to  decompose  its  vegetable  ingredients,  we 
should  obtain,  perhaps,  10  per  cent,  of  really  useful 
saline  and  earthy  matters,  (one-fortieth  of  the  original 
weight,)  according  to  the  richness  or  poverty  of  the  food 
the  liorse  had  taken. 

Now,  this  minute  proportion  of  saline  and  earthy  mat- 
ters, and  its  relative  quantity,  in  the  various  kinds  of 
excrement,  forms,  evidently,  the  chief  topic  of  interest 
to  which  our  attention  should  be  directed;  inasmuch  as 
what  is  left  upon  such  examination  and  analysis,  is 
exactly  what  has  made  up  the  component  inorganic 
parts  of  the  hay,  straw,  grass,  or  oats,  on  which  the  ani- 
mal has  been  fed ;  or,  in  other  words,  exactly  what  has 
been  removed  from  the  soil,  and  requires  to  be  replaced, 
if  the  next  crop  is  to  equal  the  last.  If  our  object  is 
increased  fertility,  more  must  be  added  than  has  beea 
taken  away.  Hay,  straw,  and  oats,  formed  (for  illustra- 
tion's sake)  the  food  of  a  horse.  Their  principal  con- 
stituents are  the  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  car- 
bonate of  lime,  and  silicate  of  potash  ;  the  first  three  of 
these  preponderated  in  the  corn,  the  latter  in  the  hay — 
and  these,  removed  from  the  soil  with  the  crop,  are  pre- 
cisely the  saline  matters  which  would  be  found  in  the 
excrement  of  the  animal  for  whose  support  that  crop 
was  intended. 

In  order,  then,  to  atone  for  the  absence  of  that  excre- 
ment which  derives  its  value  from  the  soil  which  has 
produced  it,  and  for  which  it  is  peculiarly  fitted,  as  con- 
taining what  that  soil  has  lost,  the  ashes  of  wood  or  bones 
may  often  be  judiciously  substituted — and  for  this  rea- 
son :  wood-ashes  contain  silicate  of  potash,  exactly  in 
the  same  proportion  as  that  salt  is  found  to  exist  in  the 
straw  of  the  last  crop  ;  and  as  to  bones,  the  greatest  part 
of  their  bulk  consists  of  the  phosphates  of  lime  and  mag- 
nesia. Ashes  obtained  from  various  trees  are  of  un- 
equal value  :   those  from  oak-wood  are  the  least— those 


ELEMENTS   OP 


from  beech,  most  serviceable.  With  every  100  pounds 
of  the  ashes  of  the  beech  j<pread  over  a  soil,  we  furnish 
as  much  phosphates  as  460  pounds  of  fresh  night  soil 
could  yield.  But  night-soil  contains  other  useful  mat- 
ters besides  phosphates  ;  hence  the  utility  of  mixed  com- 
posts ;  as,  evidently,  the  ashes  of  the  beech  could  not 
alone  secure  fertility. 

■  Bone  manure  possesses  still  greater  importance  than 
wood  ashes  as  a  substitute  for  an  indefinite  and  large 
supply  of  animal  excrement.  The  primary  sources  from 
which  the  bones  of  animals  are  derived,  are— the  hay, 
straw,  or  other  substances  which  they  take  as  food. 
Now,  bones  contain  more  than  half  their  weight  of  the 
phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia  ;  and  hay  contains  as 
much  of  these  sails  as  wheat  straw.  It  follows,  then, 
that  8  pounds  of  bones  contain  as  much  phosphate  of 
lime  as  1000  pounds  of  hay  or  wheat  straw  ;  and  2 
pounds  of  bones  as  much  as  is  found  in  1000  of  the 
grain  of  wheat  or  oats.  These  numbers  express  pretty 
exactly  the  quantity  of  phosphates  which  a  soil  yields 
annually  on  the  growth  of  hay  and  corn.  Upon  every 
acre  of  land  appropriated,to  the  growth  of  wheat,  clover, 
potatoes,  or  turnips,  forty  pounds  of  bone-dust  will  be 
found  sufficient  to  furnish  an  adequate  supply  of  phos- 
phates for  three  successive  crops. 

To  secure  the  best  application  of  bones,  they  should 
be  reduced  to  powder;  and  the  more  intimately  they 
are  mixed  with  the  soil,  the  more  easily  are  they  taken 
up  and  assimilated.  The  most  easy  and  practical  mode 
of  effecting  this,  is  to  pour  over  the  bones,  in  powder, 
half  their  weight  of  sulphuric  acid,  (or  oil  of  vitriol,)  di- 
luted with  three  or  four  parts  of  water ;  and  after  they 
have  remained  in  contact  some  time — say  a  fortnight — 
to  add  one  hundred  parts  of  water,  and  sprinkle  this 
mixture  over  the  field  before  the  plough.  Bones  maybe 
preserved  unchanged,  for  thousands  of  years,  in  dry,  or 
even  in  moist  soils,  provided  the  access  of  rain  be  pre- 
vented, as  is  exemplified  by  the  bones  of  animals  buried 
previous  to  the  flood,  found  in  loam  or  gypsum — the 
interior  parts  being  protected  by  the  exterior  from  the 


PRACTICAL     AGRICULTURE.  47" 

action  of  water.  But  they  become  warm  when  reduced 
to  a  fine  powder :  and  moistened  bones  generate  heat, 
and  enter  into  putrefaction  ;  the  gelatine  which  they 
contain  is  decomposed,  and  its  nitrogen  converted  into 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  other  ammoniacal  salts, 
which  are  retained,  in  a  great  measure,  by  the  powder 
itself.  Bones  burnt  till  quite  white,  and  recently  heated 
to  redness,  will  absorb  seven  times  their  volume  of  am- 
moniacal gas.  The  analysis  of  borje  enables  us  to  say, 
that  while  100  pounds  of  bone  dusl  add  to  the  soil  33 
of  gelatine,  the  organized  substance  of  horn,  or  as  much 
organized  matter  as  is  contained  in  300  or  400  pounds 
of  blood  or  flesh,  they  add,  at  the  ^ame  time,  more  than 
half  their  weight  of  inorganic  matter,  lime,  magnesia, 
soda,  common  salt,  and  phosphoric  acid,  in  combination 
with  some  of  these — all  of  which,  as  we  have  seen,  must 
be  present  in  a  fertile  soil,  since  the  plants  require  a 
certain  supply  of  them  all  at  every  period  of  their  growth, 
but  more  especially  during  the  maturation  of  the  straw 
and  grain.  These  substances — like  the  inorganic  mat- 
ter of  plants  ploughed  into  the  soil — may,  and  do  exert 
a  beneficial  agency  upon  vegetation  after  all  the  orga- 
nized structure  of  such  decaying  plants  is  broken  up 
and  destroyed.  One  hundred  parts  of  dry  bones  contain 
33  per  cent,  of  dry  gelatine,  and  are  equivalent  to  250 
parts  of  recent  human  urine.  We  do  not  speak  now  of 
the  bone-dust  which  remains  after  all  the  animal  gela- 
tine is  removed,  in  boiling  them  to  extract  size  for  the 
calico-printer. 

Horn  is  a  still  more  powerful  manure  than  bone  :  that 
is  to  say,  it  contains  a  greater  proportion  of  organized 
animal  matter.  The  peculiarity  is,  that  horn,  hair,  and 
wool,  as  organized  substances,  are  dry ;  while  blood 
and  flesh  contain  from  80  to  90  per  cent,  their  weight 
of  water.  Hence,  a  ton  of  horn-shavings,  of  hair,  or  of 
dry  woollen  rags,  ought  to  enrich  the  soil  with  as  much 
animal  matter  (and  consequently  nitrogen,)  as  would  be 
yielded  by  ten  tons  of  blood.  In  consequence  of  this 
dryness,  horn  and  wool  decompose  more  slowly  than 
blood ;   and  hence,  the  effect  of  soft  animal  matters  is 


4S  ELEMENTS    OF 

more  immediate  and  apparent  than  that  of  hard  and 
dry  animal  matters — the  action  of  which  is,  neverthe- 
less, stronger,  and  continues  for  a  longer  period. 

The  refuse  of  the  different  manufactories  of  skin  and 
leather  form  very  useful  animal  manures;  such  as  the 
shavings  of  the  currier,  furrier's  clippings,  and  the  offals 
of  the  tan-yard  and  of  the  glue-maker.  The  gelatine 
contained  in  every  kind  of  skin,  is  in  a  state  fitted  for 
its  gradual  decomposition  ;  and  when  buried  in  the  soil, 
it  lasts  for  a  considerable  time,  and  constantly  affords  a 
supply  of  nutritive  matter  to  the  plants  in  its  neighbor- 
hood. These  manures  contain  nitrogen  as  well  as  phos- 
phates, and  consequently  are  w^ell  fitted  to  aid  the  pro- 
cess of  vegetable  growth. 

From  what  has  been  stated,  we  may  arrive  at  the  fol- 
lowing conclusions : — 

1.  That  fresh  human  urine  yields  nitrogen  in  greater 
abundance  to  vegetation  than  any  other  material  of 
easy  acquib^ition  ;  and  that  the  urine  of  animals  is  valu- 
able for  the  same  purpose,  but  not  equally  so. 

2.  That  the  mixed  excrements  of  man  and  animals 
yield  (if  carefully  preserved  from  further  deconiposiiion) 
not  only  nitrogen,  but  other  invaluable  saline  and  earthy 
matters  that  have  been  already  extracted  in  food  from 
the  soil.  * 

3.  That  animal  substances  which,  hke  urine,  flesh, 
and  blood,  decompose  rapidly,  are  fitted  to  operate  im- 
mediately and  powerfully  on  vegetation. 

4.  That  dry  animal  substances,  as  horn,  hait,  oi 
woollen  rags,  decompose  slowly,  and  (weight  for  weight) 
contain  a  greater  quantity  of  organized  as  well  as  un- 
organized materials,  manifesting  their  influence  it  may 
be  for  several  seasons. 

5.  That  bones,  acting  like  horn,  in  so  far  as  their 
animal  matter  is  concerned,  may,  according  as  they  have 
oeen  more  or  less  finely  crushed,  ameliorate  the  soil  by 
their  earthy  matter  for  a  long  period,  (even  if  the  jelly 
they  contain  have  been  injuriously  removed  by  the  size- 
maker,)  permanently  improving  the  condition  and  adding- 
to  the  natural  capabilities  of  the  land. 


OF   THE    INVESTIGATIONS    OP 

PROFESSOR  LIEBIG,  SIR  HUMPHRY  DAVY, 


THE  AMERICAN  GARDENER. 

BY    WM.    COBBITT,  M.  P. 


SITUATION    OF    A    GARDEN. 

The  ground  should  be  as  Hearly  on  a  level  as  possi- 
ble ;  because,  if  the  slope  be  considerable,  the  heavy 
rains  do  great  injury,  by  washing  away  the  soil.  How- 
ever, it  is  not  always  in  our  power  to  choose  a  level  spot ; 
but,  if  there  be  a  slope  in  the  ground,  it  ought,  if  possi- 
ble, to  be  towards  the  South.  For,  though  such  a  di- 
rection adds  to  the  heat  in  summer,  this  is  more  tlian 
counterbalanced  by  the  earliness  which  it. causes  in  the 
spring.  By  all  means  avoid  an  inclination  towards  the 
North,  or  West,  and  towards  any  of  the  points  between 
North  and  West.  After  all,  it  may  not  be  in  our  power 
to  have  a  level  spot,  nor  even  a  spot  nearly  level ;  and 
then  we  must  do  our  best  with  what  we  have. 

I  am  speaking  here  solely  of  a  kitchen-garden.  All 
large  trees  ought  to  be  kept  at  a  distance  of  thirty  or 
forty  yards.  For,  the  shade  of  them  is  injurious,  and 
their  roots  a  great  deal  more  injurious,  to  every  plant 
growing  within  the  influence  of  those  roots.  It  is  a  com- 
mon  but  very  erroneous  notion,  that  the  trees,  which 


8  THE    AMERICAN   GARDENER. 

grow  in  the  hedges  that  divide  the  fields,  do  injury  by 
their  shade  only. 

If  it  be  practicable,  without  sacrificing  too  much  in 
other  respects,  to  make  a  garden  near  to  running  water, 
and  especially  to  water  that  may  be  turned  into  the 
garden,  the  advantage  ought  to  be  profited  by.  Water- 
ing with  a  watering  pot  is  seldom  of  much  use,  and  it 
cannot  be  practised  upon  a  large  scale.  It  is  better  to 
trust  to  judicious  tillage  and  to  the  dews  and  rains. 
The  moisture  which  these  do  not  supply  cannot  be  fur- 
nished, to  any  extent,  by  the  watering-pot.  A  maa 
will  raise  more  moisture  with  a  hoe  or  spade,  in  a  day, 
than  he  can  pour  on  the  earth  out  of  a  watering-pot  in 
a  month. 

SOIL 

The  plants  which  grow  in  a  garden,  prefer,  like  most 
other  plants,  the  best  soil  that  is  to  be  found.  The  best 
is,  loam  of  several  feet  deep,  with  a  bed  of  lime-stone, 
sand-stone,  or  sand  below. 

Having  fixed  upon  the.  spot  for  the  garden,  the  next 
thing  is  to  prepare  the  ground.  This  may  be  done  by 
ploughing  and  harrowing,  until  the  ground,  at  top,  be 
perfectly  clean;  and,  then,  by  double  ploughings:  that 
is  to  say,  by  going  with  a  strong  plough  that  turns  a 
large  furrow  and  turns  it  cleanly,  twice  in  the  same 
place,  and  thus  moving  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  four- 
teen or  sixteen  inches,  for  the  advantage  of  deeply  mov- 
ing the  ground  is  very  great  indeed.  When  this  has 
been  done  in  one  direction,  it  ought  to  be  done  across, 
and  then  the  ground  will  have  been  well  and  truly 
moved. 

The  ground  being  ploughed  in  October,  ought  to  be 
well  manured  at  top  with  good  well-rotted  manure,  or 
with  soap-boiler's  ashes,  or  some  other  good  manure  ; 
and  this  might  be  ploughed,  or  dug  in  shallowly.  Be- 
fore the  frost  is  gone  in  the  spring,  another  good  coat  of 
manure  should  be  put  on  ;  well-rotted  manure  from  the 
yard,  ashes,  or  rather,  if  ready,  from  a  good  compost. 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  ^ 

Then,  when  the  frost  is  gone,  the  ground  will  be  in- 
stantly fit  for  digging  and  planting;  and,  it  will  bear  al- 
most anything  that  can  be  put  into  it. 

MANURES  ADAPTED  TO  A  GARDEN. 

It  is  generally  thought,  and,  I  believe  truly,  that  ma- 
nure of  any  sort,  is  not  what  ought  to  be  used  in  the 
raising  of  garden  vegetables.  It  is  very  certain,  that 
they  are  coarse  and  gross  when  produced  with  aid  of 
that  sort  of  manure,  compared  to  what  they  are  when 
raised  with  the  aid  of  ashes,  lime,  rags,  and  composts. 
And  besides,  dung  in  hot  soils  and  hot  climates,  adds  to 
tne  heat;  while  ashes,  lime,  rags,  and  composts  do  not; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  they  attract,  and  cause  the  earth 
to  retain  moisture. 

All  the  ground  in  a  garden  ought  always  to  be  good , 
and  it  will  be  kept  in  this  state  if  it  be  well  manured 
once  every  year.  Perhaps  it  will  scarcely  ever  be  con- 
venient to  any  one  to  manure  the  whole  garden  at  one 
time  :  and  this  is  not  of  so  much  importance.  Clay,  or 
any  earth,  burnt,  is  excellent  manure  for  a  garden.  It 
has  no  seeds  of  weeds  or  grass  in  it.  A  compost  made 
of  such  ashes,  some  wood-ashes,  a  small  portion  of  horse- 
dung,  rotten  leaves,  and  mould  shovelled  up  under  trees, 
round  buildings,  or  on  the  sides  of  roads, — all  these  to- 
gether, put  into  a  heap,  and  turned  over  several  times, 
make  the  best  of  manure  for  a  garden. 

A  great  deal  more  is  done  by  the  fermentation  of  ma- 
nures than  people  generally  imagine.  In  the  month  of 
June  take  twenty  cart  loads  of  earth,  which  has  been 
shovelled  oft'  the  surface  of  a  grassy  lane,  or  by  a  road' 
side,  or  round  about  barns,  stables,  and  the  like.  Lay 
these  twenty  loads  about  a  foot  thick  on  some  conve- 
nient spot.  Go  and  cut  up  twenty  good  cart-loads  of 
weeds  of  any  sort,  and  lay  these  well  shaken  up,  on  the 
earth.  Then  cover  the  weeds  with  twenty  more  cart- 
loads of  earth  like  the  former,  throwing  the  earth  on 
lightly.  In  three  days  you  will  see  the  heap  smoke  as 
if  on  fire.     If  you  put  your  hand   into  the  earth,  you 


10  THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER. 

will  find  it  too  hot  to  be  endured.  In  a  few  days  the 
heat  will  decline,  and  you  will  perceive  the  heap  sink. 
Let  it  remain  a  week  after  this,  and  then  turn  it  very 
carefully.  This  will  mix  the  whole  well  together.  You 
will  find  tite  weeds  and  g:\ass  in  a  putrid  state.  Another 
heating  will  take  place,  but  less  furious  than  the  former. 
Turn  h  a  second  time  in  seven  days:  and  a  third  time 
in  seven  days  more.  And  by  this  time  you  will  have 
forty  cart  loads  of  manure,  equal  in  strength  to  twenty 
of  yard  dung,  and  a  vast  deal  better  for  a  garden,  or  in- 
deed, for  any  other  land.  It  is  not  expensive  to  obtain 
this  sort  of  manure  ;  and  such  a  heap,  or  part  of  such  a 
heap,  might  at  all  times  be  ready  for  the  use  of  the  gap- 
den.  When  such  a  heap  is  once  formed,  some  ashes. 
fish  shells  or  bones,  reduced  to  powder,  or  other  enliven- 
ing matter,  may  be  added  to  it  and  mixed  well  with 
it;  and  thus  will  a  store  be  always  at  hand  for  any 
part  of  the  garden  that  might  want  it. 

LAYING-OUT. 

Tlie  laying-out  of  a  garden  consists  in  the  division  of 
it  into  several  parts,  and  in  the  allotting  of  those  severai 
parts  to  the  several  purposes  for  which  a  garden  is  made. 
These  parts  consist  of  walks,  paths,  plats,  borders,  and 
a  hot-bed  ground. 

HOT-BEDS 

Dung  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep  or  pigs,  is  used  to  make 
the  bed  of.  Eiilicr  may  be  made  to  do,  with  a  greater 
or'less  dejrree  of  care  and  trouble;  but,  the  best  possible 
thing  is  (lung  from  the  stable,  taken  away  before  it  has 
been  rotted,  short  and  louij  promiscuously,  but  rather 
long  than  short.  If  there  be  a  large  proportion  of  short, 
it  may  hnve  anv  litter  added  to  it;  any  l)roken  straw  or 
hay,  or  corn  stalks,  in  order  to  njake  a  due  mixture  of 
long  and  short.     Shake  every  fork  full  well  to  pieces,  and 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  11 

mix  well  the  Ions:  witli   the  short;  and  thus  t^o  on  till 
you  have  the  whole  in  a  round  heap  risings  to  a  point. 

The  second  day  after  this  heap  is  made  it  will  hegin 
to  send  forth  steam.  Let  it  remain  three  days  in  this 
state  ;  that  is  to.say,  four  clear  days  after  the  day  of 
making  ti.e  heap.  Then  turn  the  heap  hack  aii^ain, 
shaking  all  well  to  pieces,  as  before,  and  bringing  to  the 
inside  thatpaitof  the  stulf  which  was  before  on  the 
outride  of  ihe  heap.  Let  it  remain  now  three  cleardays 
after  the  day  of  turning.  Then  turn  it  again,  shaking 
well  to  pieces  as  before,  and  bringing  again  the  outside 
stulFtothe  inside.  When  it  has  remained  two  clear 
days  in  this  state,  it  is  fit  to  make  the  bed  with. 

The  Frame  is  of  the  best  shape  when  it  is  eighteen 
inches  deep  at  the  back,  and  nine  inches  deep  at  the 
front.  This  gives  slope  enough.  The  Frame  is  the 
wood  work,  on  which  the  lights,  or  glass-work  aie  laid. 
There  needs  no  more  than  a  good  look  at  a  thing  of 
ihis  sort  to  know  how  to  make  it,  or  to  order  it  to  be 
made.  1  suppose  a  three -light  frame,  four  feet  wide  and 
nine  feet  long,  which  of  course  will  make  every  light 
three  feet  wide  and  four  long ;  because,  the  long  way  of 
the  light  fits,  of  course,  the  cross  way  of  the  frame. 

The  front  of  the  bed  is  to  be  full  South,  so  that  the 
noon  sun  may  come  right  upon  the  glass.  The  length 
and  width  of  the  bed  must  be  those  of  the  frame. 

When  you  have  shaken  on  dung  to  the  thickness  of 
four  or  five  inches,  beat  all  over  well.  But  you  must 
be  very  careful  to  keep  the  edges  of  the  bed  well  beaten, 
or  else  they  will  he  more  hollow,  and  will  sink  more 
than  the  rest,  and  then  the  earth  on  the  bed  will  crack 
in  the  middle.  Comb  the  sides  frequently  down  with 
tiKj  lines  of  the  foik.  At  last,  shovel  and  sweep  up 
all  the  short  earthy  stuff  around  the  bed  and  where  your 
dung-heap  was,  and  lay  it  very  smoothly  on  the  top  af 
the  bed  ;  and  make  all  as  smooth  and  as  level  as  a  die 
with  the  back  of  your  shovel. 

Then  put  on  the  frame  and  fix  it  nicely.  Then  put 
the  lights  upon  the  frame.     If  you  finish  your  bed  by 


n* 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER. 


noon,  the  heat  will  beg-iii  to  rise  by  next  morning",  and 
by  noon  of  the  second  day  after  the  bed  is  made,  the 
heat  will  be  up.  Poke  your  finger  as  deep  as  you  can 
into  the  middle  of  the  bed  when  you  have  taken  off  one 
of  the  lights.  If  the  heat  be  so  great'  as  to  burn  your 
finger;  that  is  to  say,  if  you  cannot  endure  the  heat, 
then  it  is  too  great  to  receive  the  earth  ;  but  if  not,  put 
on  the  earth  all  over  the  bed.  If  the  heat  be  too  great, 
give  the  bed  a  little  air,  and  wait  till  a  little  of  the  heat 
be  gone  oflf. 

The  earth  should  be  dry  ;  not  like  dust ;  but  not  wel. 
I  made  provision  for  my  bed  by  putting  earth  in  my 
cellar  in  November.  It  is  not  much  that  is  wanted. 
The  bed  is  to  be  covered  all  over,  about  six  inches  deep. 
"When  the  earth  has  been  on  twenty-four  hours,  take  off 
the  lights  and  stir  the  earth  well  with  your  hands ;  for 
hands  are  the  only  tools  used  in  a  hot-bed.  When  you 
have  stirred  the  earth  well,  and  made  it  level  and 
smooth,  you  may  sow  your  seed,  if  you  do  not  find  the 
earth  too  hot.  But,  observe,  the  earth  is  to  be  level,  and 
not  sloping  like  the  glass.  The  glass  is  sloping  to  meet 
the  sun,  and  to  turn  oflT  the  wet ;  but  the  earth  must  lie 
perfectly  level ;  and  this,  you  will  observe,  is  a  very 
great  point. 

SOWING, 

The  more  handsomely  this  is  done  the  better.  When 
you  have  taken  off  ail  the  lights,  make  little  drills  with 
your  fitjger,  from  the  back  of  the  bed  to  the  front,  half 
an  inch  deep  and  about  an  inch  apart.  Make  them 
equi-distant,  parallel,  and  straight.  Then  drop  in  your 
cabbage  sends  along  the  drills,  very  thin  ;  put  twenty 
seeds  perhaps  in  an  inch  ;  for  some  will  not  grow,  and 
some  may  be  pulled  up  when  they  appear.  It  is  better 
to  have  rather  too  many  than  too  lew.  When  yoy 
have  dropped  in  your  sireds  all  over  the  bed,  and  distin- 
guished the  several  sorts  of  cabba'j^es  by  names  or  nunn- 
bers  written  on  a  bit.  of  paper,  and  put  into  the  cleft  of  a 
little  stick  and  stuck  in  the  ground  ;  then  cover  all  the 


THE   AMERICAN   GARDENER.  13 

seeds  over  neatly  and  smoothly.     Put  on  the  lights,  and 
look  upon  your  spring  work  as  happily  begun. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  A  HOT-BED. 

Always  give  as  much  air  as  the  plants  will  endure. 
I  suppose  the  hot-bed,  made  as  above,  to  be  about  four 
feet  high,  when  just  finished.  It  will  sink  as  it  heats; 
and  will,  at  last,  come  to  about  a  foot  and  a  half.  Its 
heat  will  gradually  diminish  ;  but  it  will  give  a  great 
heat  for  about  six  weeks,  and  some  heat  for  four  months. 
It  is  this  bottom  hea|  that  makes  things  grow.  The 
sun  is  often  hot  in  May ;  but  it  is  not  until  the  earth  is 
warm  that  veget<ition  advances  with  rapidity. 

Even  before  the  seeds  begin  to  appear  give  air  to  the 
bed  every  day,  unless  it  be  very  cold  weather  indeed. 
The  usual  way  of  giving  air  is  by  bits  of  thick  board, 
cut  in  the  shape  of  a  triangle,  or  rather,  like  a  wedge, 
broad  at  one  end,  and  coming  to  a  point  at  the  other. 
Each  light  is  lifted  up,  either  at  back  or  front  of  the 
frame,  as  the  wind  may  be,  and  the  wedge,  or  lilter,  as 
it  is  called,  is  put  in  to  hold  the  light  up.  But,  if  more 
air  be  wanted,  the  lights  may  be  shoved  up  or  down, 
and,  on  a  fine  day,  actually  taken  off. 

When  the  plants  come  up,  they  will  soon  tell  you  all 
about  air;  for,  if  they  have  not  enough,  they  will  grow- 
up  long-legged,  and  will  have  small  seed  leaves,  and  in- 
deed, if  too  much  deprived  of  air,  will  dropdown  and 
die.  Let  them  grow  strong  rather  than  tall.  Short 
stems,  broad  seed  leaves,  very  green ;  these  are  the 
signs  of  good  plants  and  proper  management. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  water.  Take  off  a  light  at  a 
lime,  and  water  with  a  watering  pot  that  does  not  pour 
out  heavily.  W^ter  just  about  sunset :  and  then  shut 
down  the  lights ;  and  the  heat  will  then  rise,  and  make 
the  plants  grow  prodigiously. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  fairly  up,  thin  them,  leaving 
four  in  an  inch  ;  stir  the  ground  about  at  the  same  time 
with  your  finger.  This  will  leave  in  the  frame  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  thousand  plants.     If  you  want  less, 


l4«  THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER. 

SOW  in  wide  rows  and  thinner  in  the  row.  Do  not  at- 
tempt to  make  the  plants  ^row  fast.  You  are  sure  to 
destroy  them  if  you  make  this  attempt. 

GREEN-HOUSES. 

A  green-house  is  for  the  purpose  of  having  plants  and 
flowers  flourishinGT,  or,  at  least,  in  verdure  and  in  bloom 
in  winter.  The  best  place  for  a  green-house  is  near  the 
dwelling-house,  and  it.  should  be  actually  joined  lo  the 
dwelling-house,  one  of  the  rooms  of  which  should  have 
windows  looking  into  the  gieen-htouse,  which  latter, 
however,  must  face  the  South. 

In  most  cases  the  warmth  might  go  from  the  parlor 
fire-place  ;  for,  all  that  is  wanted,  is  completely  to  keep 
out  frost.  There  is,  here,  no  want  of  sun  even  in  the 
coldest  weather;  and,  if  the  green-house  were  on  the 
Eastern  side  of  the  dwelling-house,  the  cold  would  not 
be  any  great  annoyance.  But,  at  any  rate,  the  heat 
necessary  to  keep  out  frost   might  easily  be  obtained. 

A  thermometer  should  be  kept  in  the  green-house. 
The  heat  should  be  about  sixty  degrees  in  the  day  time, 
and  forty-five  in  the  night. 

Air  is  the  main  thing  after  the  keeping  out  of  the 
frost.  Air  is  given  by  pushing  up  or  drawing  down  the 
lights,  which  form  the  top  or  roof  of  the  green-house. 
Always  give  air  when  there  is  no  fear  of  frost.  Give 
heat  and  air  at  the  same  time,  if  the  weather  be  not 
mild  enough  to  dispense  with  the  heat.  For,  without 
air,  the  plants  will  become  sickly.  They  have  lungs  as 
well  as  we ;  and,  though  they  may  live  for  a  while 
without  air,  they  will  be  an  eye-sore  instead  of  a  delight 
to  the  bnholder.  If  the  sides  and  front,  as  well  as  the 
top  of  the  green-house  be  of  glass  (which  is  best),  then 
air  may  be  given  there,  instead  of  giving  it  by  pushing 
up  or  pulling  down  the  Hghts  at  top. 

The  plants,  of  whatever  sort  or  size,  must  be  in  pots 
or  jars.  The  pots  ought  never  to  be  glazed.  Plain 
earthen  pots  are  best  as  well  as  cheapest.  There  must 
be  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  bottom  of  every  pot,  or 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  15 

no  plant  will  live  in  it  for  any  considerable  length  of 
time,  and  will  never  grow  in  it  at  all.  This  hole  should 
be  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  pot ;  and  the  pots 
may  be  from  4  inches  to  18  inches  over  at  top,  and  from 
4  inches  to  IS  inches  deep ;  being  one-third  less  across 
at  bottom  than  at  the  top.  The  smallest  hole  ought  to 
be  of  the  size  of  half  a  dollar. 

Some  care  is  necessary  in  sowing  and  planting  in 
pots.  The  mould  should  be  good,  and  made  very  fine. 
The  first  thing  is  to  put  an  oyster  shell,  or  piece  of  bro- 
ken earthen  ware  into  the  pot,  to  cover  the  hole  at  the 
bottom  ;  and  the  hollow  part  of  the  shell  or  other  thing, 
should  be  downwards.  The  use  of  this  is.  to  keep  the 
hole  open,  that  the  water  may  find  its  way  out  of  the 
pot,  and  not  lie  stagnant  at  the  bottom,  where  it  would 
become  sour  and  injure,  if  not  kill  the  plant.  The  earth, 
if  there  were  no  shell,  would  fill  up  the  hole,  and  would, 
in  time,  become  solid,  and  thus  prevent  the  water  from 
getting  out. 

The  benches  of  the  green-house  should  rise  one  above 
another,  like  the  steps  of  stairs,  that  the  whole  of  the 
plants  may  share  in  the  benefit  bestowed  by  the  sun  ; 
but  there  may  be  some  on  the  ground,  or  floor ;  and  in- 
deed, the  precise  arrangement  must  be  left  to  the  taste 
of  the  owner. 


ON  PROPAGATION 


AND 


CULTIVATION  IN  GENERAL. 


The  propagation  of  plants  is  the  brinj^ing  of  them 
forth,  or  the  increasing  and  multiplying  of  them.  This 
is  effected  in  several  diflferent  ways :  by  seed,  by  suck- 
ers, by  offsets,  by  layers,  by  cuttings.  But  bear  in  mind, 
that  all  plants,  from  the  radish  to  the  oak,  may  be  pro- 
pagated by  the  means  of  seed  ;  while  there  are  many 
plants  which  can  be  propagated  by  no  other  means ; 
and  of  these  the  radish  arid  the  oak  are  two. 

SORT    OF    SEED. 

We  should  make  sure  here ;  for,  what  a  loss  to  have 
late  cabbages  instead  of  early  ones  !  As  to  beans,  peas, 
and  many  other  things,  there  cannot  easily  be  mistake 
or  deception.  But,  as  to  cabbages,  cauliflowers,  turnips, 
radishes,  lettuces,  onions,  leeks,  and  numerous  others, 
the  eye  is  no  guide  at  all.  If,  therefore,  you  do  not 
save  your  seed,  you  ought  to  be  very  careful  as  to  whom 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  ff 

• 

ytm  purchase  of;  and,  though  the  seller  be  a  person  of 
perfect  probity,  he  may  be  deceived  himself. 

I  know  of  no  seed,  which,  if  sound  and  really  good, 
will  not  sink  in  water.  The  unsoundness  of  seed  arises 
from  several  causes.  Unripeness,  blight,  mouldiness, 
and  age,  are  the  most  frequent  of  these  causes.  The 
first  two,  if  excessive,  prevent  the  seed  from  ever  having 
the  germinating  quality  in  them.  Mouldiness  arises 
from  the  seed  being  kept  in  a  damp  place,  or  from  its 
having  heated.  When  dried  again  it  becomes  light. 
A^e  will  cause  the  germinating  quality  to  evaporate ; 
though,  where  there  is  a  great  proportion  of  oil  in  the 
seed,  this  quality  will  remain  in  it  many  years. 

SAVING    AND    PRESERVING    SEED. 

First,  as  to  the  saving  of  seed,  the  truest  plants  should 
be  selected  ;  that  is  to  say,  such  as  one  of  the  most  per- 
fect shape  and  quality.  In  the  cabbage  we  seek  small 
stem,  well-fornied  leaf,  few  spare  or  loose  leaves;  in  the 
turnip,  large  bulb,  small  neck,  slender-stalked  leaves, 
solid  flesh,  or  pulp ;  in  the  radish,  high  color  (if  red  or 
scarlet),  small  neck,  few  and  short  leaves,  and  long  top, 
the  marks  of  perfection  are  well  known,  and  none  but 
perfect  plants  should  be  saved  for  seed. 

Effectual  means  must  be  taken  to  prevent  a  mixing 
of  the  sorts,  or,  to  speak  in  the  language  of  farmers,  a 
crossing  of  the  breeds, 

There  can  be  no  cross  between  a  cabbage  and  a  car- 
rot:  but  there  can  be  between  a  cabbage  and  a  turnip; 
between  a  cabbage  and  a  cauliflower  nothing  is  more 
common  ;  and,  as  to  the  different  sorts  of  cabbage?,  they 
will  produce  crosses,  presenting  twenty,  and  perhaps  a 
thousand  degrees  from  the  Eaily  York  to  the  Savoy. 
Turnips  will  mix  witli  radislies  and  ruta  baga ;  all  these 
with  rape  ;  the  result  will  mix  with  cabbages  and  cauli- 
flowers ;  so  that,  if  nothing  .were  done  to  preserve  plants 
true  to  their  kind,  our  gardens  would  soon  present  us 
with  little  bendes  mere  herbage. 


XS  THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER. 

» 

I  always  sow  new  seed  in  preference  to  old,  if,  in  all 
other  respects,  I  know  the  new  to  be  equal  to  the  old. 

Parsnips,  carrots,  beets,  onions,  and  many  other 
things,  may  be  safely  sown  in  the  fall.  The  seed  will 
not  perish,  if  covered  by  the  earth.  But  then,  care  must 
be  taken  to  sow  early  enough  in  the  fall  for  the  plants 
to  come  up  before  the  frosts  set  in.  The  seed  of  all 
plants  will  lie  safe  in  this  way  all  the  winter,  though 
the  frost  penetrate  to  the  distance  of  three  feet  beneath 
them,  except  the  seeds  of  such  plants  as  a  slight  frost 
will  cut  down.  The  seed  of  kidney  beans,  for  instance, 
will  rot,  if  the  ground  be  not  warm  enough  to  bring  it 
up.  So  will  the  seed  of  cucumbers,  melons,  and  Indian 
corn,  unless  buried  beyond  the  reach  of  the  influence  of 
the  atmosphere.  Even  early  peas  would  be  best  sown 
in  the  fall,  could  you  have  an  insurance  against  mice. 
We  all  know  what  a  bustle  theie  is  to  get  in  early  peas. 
If  they  were  sown  in  the  fall,  they  would  start  up  the 
moment  the  frost  were  out  of  the  ground,  and  would  be 
ten  days  earlier  in  bearing,  in  spile  of  every  effort  made 
by  the  spring-sowers  to  make  their  peas  overtake  them. 
In  some  cases  it  would  be  a  good  way,  to  cover  the 
sown  ground  with  litter,  or  with  leaves  of  trees,  as  soon 
as  the  frost  has  fairly  set  in  ;  but,  not  before ;  for,  if  you 
do  it  before,  the  seed  may  vegetate,  and  then  may  be 
killed  by  the  frost. 

When  the  seeds  are  properly,  and  at  suitable  dis- 
tances placed  in  the  drills,  rake  tiie  ground,  and  in  all 
cases,  tread  it  with  your  feet,  unless  it  be  very  moist. 
Then  rake  it  slightly  again  ;  for  all  seeds  grow  best 
when  the  earth  is  pressed  closely  about  them.  When 
the  plants  come  up,  thin  them,  keep  them  clear  of  weeds, 
and  attend  to  the  directions  given  under  the  names  of 
the  several  plants. 

TRANSPLANTING. 

/ 

The  weather  for  transplanting,  whether  of  table  ve» 
getables,  or  of  trees,  is  the  same  as  that  for  sowing.     If 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  19 

you  do  this  work  in  wet  weather,  or  when  the  ground 
is  wet,  the  work  cannot  be  well  done.  It  is  no  matter 
what  tlie  plant  is,  whether  it  be  a  cucumber  plant,  or  an 
oak  tree.  It  has  been  observed,  as  to  seeds,  that  they 
like  the  earth  to  touch  them  in  every  part,  and  to  lie 
close  about  them.  It  is  the  same  witii  roots.  One  half 
of  the  bad  growth  that  we  see  in  orchards  arises  from 
negligence  in  the  planting;  from  tumbling  the  earth 
carelessly  in  upon  the  roots.  The  earth  should  be  fine 
as  possible  ;  for,  if  it  be  not,  part  of  the  roots  will  re- 
main untouched  by  the  earth.  If  ground  be  wet,  it  can- 
not be  fine.  And,  if  mixed  wet,  it  will  remain  in  a 
sort  of  mortar,  and  will  cling  and  bind  together,  and 
will  leave  more  or  less  of  cracks  when  it  becomes  dry. 

If  possible,  therefore,  transplant  when  the  ground  is 
not  wet ;  but,  here  again,  as  in  the  case  of  sowing,  let 
it  be  dug,  or  deeply  moved  and  well  broken,  immedi- 
ately before  you  transplant  into  it.  There  is  a  fermen- 
tation that  takes  place  immediately  after  moving,  and  a 
dew  arises  which  did  not  take  place  before.  These 
greatly  exceed,  in  power  of  causing  the  plant  to  strike, 
anything  to  be  obtained  by  rain  on  the  plants  at  the 
time  of  planting,  or  by  planting  in  wet  earth.  Cab- 
bages and  ruta-baga  (or  Swedish  turnip),  I  have  proved 
in  innumerable  instances,  will,  if  planted  in  freshly- 
moved  earth,  under  a  burning  sun,  be  a  great  deal  finer 
than  those  planted  in  wet  ground,  or  during  rain.  There 
never  was  a  greater,  though  most  popular  error,  than 
that  of  waiting  for  a  shower  in  order  to  set  about  the 
work  of  transplanting. 

If  you  transplant  in  hot  weather,  the  leaves  of  the 
plants  will  be  scorched  ;  but  the  hearts  will  live ;  and 
the  heat  assisting  the  fermentation,  will  produce  new 
roots  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  new  leaves  in  a  few  days. 
Theii  it  is  that  you  see  fine  vegetation  come  on.  If  you 
plant  in  wet,  that  wet  must  be  followed  by  dry  ;  the 
earth,  from  being  moved  in  wet,  contracts  the  mortary 
nature ;  hardens  first,  and  then  cracks  ;  and  the  plants 


190  THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER. 

•will  stand  in  a  stunted  state  till  the  ground  be  moved 
about  them  in  dry  weather. 

However,  there  are  some  very  tender  plants  ;  plants 
30  soft  and  juicy  as  to  be  absolutely  burnt  up  and  totally 
destroyed,  stems  and  all,  in  a  hot  sun,  in  a  few  houre. 
Cucumbers  and  melons,  ifor  instance,  and  some  flower- 
ing plants.  These,  which  lie  in  a  small  compass,  must 
be  shaded  at  least,  if  not  watered  upon  their  removal. 

In  the  act  of  transplanting,  the  main  things  are  to 
take  care  not  to  bury  the  heart  of  the  plant ;  and  to  take 
care  that  the  earth  be  well  pressed  about  the  point  of 
the  root  of  the  plant.  To  press  the  earth  very  closely 
about  the  stem  of  the  plant  is  of  little  use,  if  you  leave 
the  point  of  the  root  loose.  I  beg  that  this  may  be 
borne  in  mind  ;  for  the  growth,  and  even  the  life  of  the 
plant  depend  on  great  care  as  to  this  particular. 

CULTIVATION. 

ff  the  plants  be  from  seed,  the  first  thing  is  to  see  that 
they  stand  at  a  proper  distance  from  each  other.;  be- 
cause, if  left  too  close,  they  cannot  come  to  good.  Let 
them  also  be  thinned  early  ;  for,  even  while  in  seed-leaf 
they  injure  each  other.  Carrots,  parsnips,  lettuces,  every 
thing,  ought  to  be  thinned  in  the  seed-leaf. 

Hoe,  or  weed,  immediately.  Weeds  never  ought  to 
be  sufiered  to  get  to  any  size  either  in  field  or  garden, 
and  especially  in  the  latter. 

Besides  the  act  of  killing  weeds,  cultivation  means 
moving  the  earth  between  the  plants  while  growing. 
This  assists  them  in  their  growth:  it  feeds  them:  it 
raises  food  for  their  roots  to  live  upon.  A  mere  flat- 
hocing  does  nothing  but  keep  down  the  weeds.  The 
hoeing  when  the  plants  are  become  stout,  should  be 
deep ;  and,  in  general,  with  a  hoe  that  has  tines,  in- 
stead of  a  mere  flat  plate.  In  short,  a  sort  of  prong  in 
the  posture  of  a  hoe.  And  the  spanes  of  this  prong-hoc 
may  be  longer  or  shorter,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
crop  to  be  hoed.     Deep  hoeing  is  enough  in  some  cases ; 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  21 

but  in  others,  dicrging  is  necessary  to  produce  a  fine  and 
full  crop.  If  any  body  will  have  a  piece  of  fine  cab- 
bages, and  will  dig  between  the  rows  of  one-half  of 
them,  twice  during  their  growth,  and  let  the  other  half 
of  the  piece  have  nothing  but  a  flat-hoeing,  that  person 
will  find  that  the  half  which  has  been  digged  between, 
will,  when  the  crop  is  ripe,  weigh  nearly,  if  not  quite, 
twice  as  much  as  the  other  half. 

It  may  appear,  that  to  dig  thus  among  growing 
plants,  is  to  cut  ofif  or  tear  oflT  their  roots,  of  which  the 
ground  is  full.  This  is  really  the  case,  and  this  does 
great  good  ;  for  the  roots,  thus  cut  asunder,  shoot  again 
from  the  plant  side,  find  new  food,  and  send  instantly 
fresh  vigor  to  the  plant.  ^ 


VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS. 


We  now  treat  of  the  things  cultivated  in  the  garden 
to  be  eaten  at  our  tables  as  food  ;  and  they  are  vegeta- 
bles. Herbs  are  usually  placed  as  a  class  separate  from 
vegetables ;  but  while  some  of  them  are  merely  medi- 
cinal, like  pennyroyal,  others  are  used  not  only  in  medi- 
cine and  soups,  but  also  eaten  in  salads.  Therefore,  it 
appeared  to  be  best  to  bring  into  this  one  alphabetical 
list,  plants  usually  grown  in  a  garden,  except  such  as 
come  under  the  heads  of  fruits  and  flowers. 

ARTICHOKE. 

A  plant  little  cultivated  in  America,  but  very  well 
worthy  of  cultivation.  In  its  look  it  very  much  resem- 
bles a  thistle  of  the  big-blossomed  kind.  It  sends  up  a 
seed  stalk,  and  it  blows,  exactly  like  the  thistle.  It  is, 
indeed,  a  thistle  upon  a  gigantic  scale.  The  parts  that 
are  eaten,  are  the  lower  end  of  the  thick  leaves  that  en- 
velope the  seed,  and  the  bottom  out  of  which  those 
leaves  immediately  grow.  The  whole  of  the  head,  be- 
fore the  bloom  begins  to  appear,  is  boiled,  the  pod  leaves 
are  pulled  off  by  the  eater,  one  or  two  at  a  time,  and 
dipped  in  butter,  with  a  little  pepper  and  salt,  the  mealy 


t  THE    AMERICAN   GARDENER.  2^' 

part  is  stripped  off  by  the  teeth,  and  the  rest  of  the  leaf 
put  aside,  as  we  do  the  stem  of  asparap^us.  The  bottom, 
when  all  the  leaves  are  thus  disposed  of,  is  eaten  with 
knife  and  fork. 

Artichokes  are  propagated  from  seed,  or  from  off-sets. 
If  by  the  former,  sow  the  seed  in  rows  a  foot  apart,  as 
soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground.  Thin  the  plants 
to  a  foot  apart  in  the  row  ;  and  in  the  fall  of  the  year, 
put  out  the  plants  in  clumps  of  four,  in  rows  three  feet 
apart,  and  the  rows  six  feet  asunder.  They  will  pro- 
duce their  fruit  the  next  year.  When  winter  ap- 
proaches, earth  the  roots  well  up ;  and  before  the  frost 
sets  in,  cover  all  well  over  with  litter  from  the  yard  or 
stable.  Open  at  the  breaking  up  of  the  frost ;  dig  all 
the  ground  well  between  the  rows  ;  level  the  earth  down 
from  the  plants.  You  will  find  many  young  ones, 
offsets,  growing  out  from  the  sides.  Pull  these  off,  and, 
if  you  want  a  new  plantation,  put  them  out  as  you  did 
the  original  plants.  They  will  bear,  though  later  than 
the  old  ones,  that  same  year.  As  to  sorts  of  this  plant, 
there  are  two,  but  they  contain  no  difference  of  any 
consequence  :  one  has  its  head,  or  fruit  pod,  round  ;  and 
the  other,  rather  conical.  As  to  the  quantity  for  a 
family,  one  row  across  one  of  the  plats  will  be  suffi- 
cient. 

ASPARAGUS. 

It  is  propagated  from  seed.  Gather  the  seed  when  it 
is  dead  ripe.  Sow  it  thinly  in  drills  a  foot  asunder,  and 
two  inches  deep,  thiee  weeks,  or  about,  before  the  frost 
sets  in.  Press  the  eailh  well  down  upon  the  seed,,  and 
as  soon  as  the  frost  sets  in,  but  not  before,  cover  the 
ground  with  muck,  or  litter,  a  foot  deep,  and  lay  some 
boards  or  poles,  to  prevent  its  blowing  off.  As  soon  as 
the  frost  breaks  up  in  the  spring,  take  off  the  litter;  and 
you  will  have  the  plants  quickly  up.  When  the  planta 
are  fairly  up,  thin  them  to  four  inches  asunder  ;  for  they 
will  be  four  times  as  strong  at  this  distance  as  if  they 


2m  THE   AMERICAN    GARDENER. 

Stood  close.  Keep  them  clean,  and  hoe  deeply  between 
them  all  the  summer.  To  have  beds  of  asparagus, 
there  are  two  ways :  first,  sowing  the  seed  in  the  bed 
at  once ;  and  second,  making  the  beds,  and  removing 
the  plants  into  them.  It  is  desirable  to  have  the  beds 
about  four  feet  wide,  that  you  may  cut  the  asparagus 
by  going  in  the  paths  between  them,  and  not  trample 
the  beds. 

In  the  fall,  having  made  all  the  ground  right  strong 
with  manure,  draw  the  earth  to  six  inches  deep  from 
the  top  of  the  beds  into  the  paths,  which  will  then  form 
high  ridges.  Then  draw  your  drills  a  foot  apart,  and 
sow  your  seed.  When  they  are  up  in  the  spring,  thin 
them  to  a  foot  apart.  Thus  you  will  have  them  a  fool 
apart  all  over  the  bed.  Keep  the  plants  clean  all  sum- 
mer, and  when  the  haulm  is  yellow  in  the  fall,  cut  them 
off  near,  or  close  to  the  ground  ;  but  let  the  haulm  be 
quite  dead  first;  yet,  do  it  before  the  frost  actually  sets 
in.  When  you  have  cut  off  the  haulm,  lay  some  litter 
upon  the  bed  till  spring,  to  prevent  the  frost  from  being 
too  long  coming  out  of  the  ground  in  spring.  When 
the  frost  breaks  up,  throw  some  wood  ashes,  or 
sonte  other  manure  about  an  inch  deep  over  the  bed, 
having  first  loosened  the  top  of  the  bed  with  a  fork; 
Upon  this  manure,  throw  earth  over  the  bed,  out  of  the 
paths,  three  inches  thick,  and  break  it  very  fine  at  the 
time.  In  the  fall  cut  down  the  haulm  again  as  before  ; 
repeat  the  winter  operation  of  littering;  and  in  the 
spring  again  fork  up,  put  on  ashes  or  good  mould,  and 
the  other  three  inches  deep  of  earth  out  of  the  paths. 
Thus  you  bring  the  beds  to  be  an  inch  or  two  higher 
than  the  paths;  and  this  year,  if  your  work  have  all 
been  well  done,  you  may  have  some  asparagus  to  eat. 
The  next  fall,  and  every  succeeding  fall,  cut  down  the 
haulm  and  cover  with  litter  as  before  ;  and  in  the  spring, 
of  this  third  year,  put  on  ashes  again,  or  other  fine  ma- 
nure, and  throw  over  the  beds  the  earth  that  will  come 
out  of  the  paths  dug  six  inches  deep.  This  will  make 
the  paths  six  inches  lower  than  the  beds,  and  that  is  a 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  W 

great  convenience  for  weeding,  and  for  cutting^  the  as- 
paragus. After  this,  you  are  to  cut  down  the  haulm  in 
the  fall,  cover  with  litter  during  winter,  fork  up  and  oc- 
casionally manure  in  the  spring,  to  keep  the  ground  con- 
stantly free  from  weeds,  to  dig  paths  up  every  fall,  and 
keep  them  clear  from  weeds  in  summer. 

The  second  method  of  making  the  beds  is,  to  begin 
with  plants,  instead  of  seed.  The  plants  (raised  as 
above  stated),  may  be  planted  in  the  beds  at  one  year 
old,  or  older,  if  it  so  happen.  Plant  them  at  the  same 
depth  that  is  pointed  out  for  depositing  the  seed.  And, 
in  all  other  respects,  proceed  as  in  the  case  of  a  bed  be- 
gun with  seed.  As  to  the  time  of  beginning  to  cut, 
some  say  the  third  year,  some  the  fourth,  and  some  even  ■ 
the  fifth.  There  can  be  no  fixed  time;  for,  so  much 
depends  on  the  soil  and  treatment.  Asparagus,  like 
other  things,  ought  to  be  used  when  it  comes  in  perfec- 
tion, and  not  before.  All  that  has  here  been  said  pro- 
ceeds upon  the  supposition  that  the  soil  has  a  dry  bot- 
tom. If  a  wet  bottom,  sow  or  plant  at  the  top  of  the 
ground,  and  in  all  other  respects  proceed  as  in  the  case 
of  a  dry  bottom  ;  except,  that  the  earth  to  cover  the 
bed  with  must,  time  after  time,  be  dug  out  of  the  paths, 
which  will,  at  last,  make  the  paths  into  ditches,  three 
feet  deep  from  the  tops  of  the  beds.  By  these  means 
the  roots  of  the  plants  will  be  kept  some  years  longer 
from  reaching  the  cold,  sour  soil,  at  the  bottom  ;  for, 
whenever  they  reach  that,  the  plants,  like  all  others, 
cease  to  flourish,  and  begin  to  decay. 

Asparagus  may  be  had  in  winter  with  the  greatest 
facility.  There  are  but  few  things  that  are  worth  the 
trouble  of  a  hot-bed  for  the  purpose  of  having  them  to 
eat  in  their  opposite  season  ;  but  asparagus  is  worth  it. 
And  this  is  the  way  to  have  it  for  the  table,  even  in 
February,  that  month  of  snow  and  of  north-westers. 

BALM 

Is  an  herb  purely  medicinal.     A  very  little  of  it  is  suf- 


26  THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER. 

ficient  in  a  g-arden.  It  is  piopagfated  from  seed,  or  from 
offsets.  When  once  planted,  the  only  care  required  is 
to  see  that  it  does  not  extend  itself  too  far. 

BASIL 

Is  a  very  sweet  annual  pot-herb.  There  are  two  sorts, 
the  dwarf  and  the  tall.  It  should  be  sown  in  very  fine 
earth,  and,  if  convenient,  under  a  hand-glass.  The 
bunches  may  be  dried  for  winter  use. 

BKAN. 

The  bean  I  here  mean  is,  what  is  called  by  most  per- 
sons in  America,  the  horse-bean.  It  is,  at  best,  a  coarse 
and  not  very  wholsesome  vegetable.  There  are  seve- 
ral .*Jorts  of  these  garden-beans,  the  best  of  which  is  the 
flat  seeded  bean,  called  the  Windsor-bean.  The  long 
pod  is  the  next  best  ;  and,  though  there  are  several 
others,  these  are  enough  to  merUion  here. 

The  bean  is  difficult  to  raise.  It  does  not  like  dry 
and  hot  weather ;  and  it  likes  moist  and  stiff  land.  If 
attempted  to  be  raised,  it  should  be  sown  in  the  fall  by 
all  means ;  but,  still  it  is  useless  to  sow,  unless  you 
guaid  against  mice. 

Ten  rows  of  these  beans  across  the  south  border,  four 
feet  apart,  and  the  beans  four  inches  apart,  will  be 
enough  for  a  family. 

BEAN    (kidney). 

Endless  is  the  variety  of  sorts.  Sonie  are  dwarfs, 
some  climbers;  but  the  mode  of  propagating  and  culti- 
vating is  nearly  the  same  in  all,  except  that  the  dwarfs 
require  smaller  distances  than  the  climbers,  and  that  the 
latter  are  grown  with  poles,  which  the  former  are  not. 
I  prefer  sowing  the  dwarfs  in  rows  to  sowing  them  in 
bunches  or  cluin[)s.  If  you  have  a  glazed  fame,  or  a 
hand  glass  or  two,  use  one  or  the  other  in  this  case  ;  but 
if  not.  dig  a  hole  and  put  in  it,  well  shaken  together,  a 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  27 

couple  of  wheelbarrows  fuilofa^ood  hotdun^;  and  lay 
sonic  i^ood  ricli  mould  upon  it  six  inches  thick.  Then 
lay  on  this  some  of  ihe  earliest  sort  of  dwarf  beans. 
Put  them  not  more  than  an  inch  apart,  and  cover  them 
\viih  two  inches  of  fine  rich  mould.  Bend  some  rods 
over  the  wliole,  and  put  the  ends  of  the  rods  in  the 
fjround  ;  and  every  evening,  cover  this  sort  of  roof  over 
with  a  bit  of  old  carpet  or  sail-cloth.  In  default  of 
these,  corn-stalks  may  do.  Do  this  when  the  winter 
frost  is  just  got  out  of  the  ground,  or  soon  after.  The 
beans  will  be  up  in  a  week's  time ;  and  in  about  a  fort- 
night afterwards,  they  will  be  fit  to  remove.  The 
place  for  them  is  under  a  wall,  a  paling,  or  a  hedge, 
facing  the  South.  Prepare  the  ground  well  and  make 
it  ricli.  Take  a  spade  and  carry  away  a  part  of  the 
beans  at  a  time,  and  plant  them  at  six  inches  asunder 
with -as  much  earth  about  the  roots  as  you  can.  Plant 
them  a  little  deeper  than  they  stood  in  the  bed.  They 
are  very  juicy,  and  may  have  a  little  water  given  them 
as  soon  as  planted.  Shade  them  the  first  day,  if  the 
weather  be  warm  and  the  sun  out;  and  cover  them 
evry  night  till  all  frosts  be  over.  This  is  easily  done, 
if  against  any  sort  offence,  by  putting  boards,  one  edge 
upon  the  ground  and  tlie  other  leaning  against  the 
fence  ;  but  if  you  have  no  fence,  and  have  to  plant  in 
the  open  ground,  it  will  be  best  to  plant  in  clumps,  and 
flower-pots  put  over  the  clumps  will  do  for  a  covering. 

M  to  the  main  crop,  it  is  by  no  n^ans  advisable  to 
sow  very  early.  If  you  do,  the  seed  lies  long  in  the 
ground,  which  is  always  injurious  to  the  plant.  The 
plants  come  up  feebly.  The  cold  weather  that  occa- 
sionally comes,  makes  them  look  yellow  ;  and  they  thea 
never  produce  a  fine  crop. 

Of  the  various  sorts  of  pole-beans,  one  sowing  is 
enough  ;  for,  if  you  gather  as  the  beans  become  fit  for 
use,  they  continue  bearing  all  through  the  sunmier,  es- 
pecially the  Lima-bean,  which  delights  in  heat,  and  for 
which  no  weather  can  be  too  dry  ;  and  which  should 
never  be  sown  till   the  ground   be  right  warm.     The 


28  THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER. 

dwarf  sorts  may  be  sown  all  summer,  from  the  time  that 
the  ground  becomes  warm  to  within  seven  weeks  of  the 
time  that  the  little  frosts  begin  in  the  fall ;  for  they  will 
at  this  season,  produce  for  eating  green,  in  six  weeks 
from  the  day  of  sowing. 

As  to  the  sorts  of  kidney-beans,  they  are  almost  end- 
less in  number.  I  will,  however,  name  a  few :  The 
dim,  or  drab-colored  dwarf  bean,  is  the  earliest.  The 
same  ground  will  bear  and  ripen  two  crops  in  one  year, 
the  last  from  the  seed  of  the  first.  The  yellow ;  the 
black  ;  the  speckled  ;  the  painted  white  and  red  :  these 
are  all  dwarfs ;  but  there  are  a  great  many  others. 
Among  runners,  or  pole-beans,  there  are  the  scarlet-blos- 
som, the  seed  of  which  is  red  and  black,  and  the  seed- 
pod  rough.  There  is  a  white  bean  precisely  like  the 
former,  except  that  the  bean  and  blossom  are  white. 
The  case-knife  bean  :  this  is  the  best  bean  of  all  to  eat 
green.  Then  th-je  is  the  cranberry-bean  of  various  co^ 
lors  as  to  seed.  The  Lima-bean,  which  is  never  eaten 
green,  (that  is,  the  pod  is  never  eaten,)  and  which  is 
sometimes  called  the  butter-bean,  has  a  broad,  flat,  and 
thin  seed  of  a  yellowish-white  color. 

BEET. 

It  should  be  sown  in  the  fall ;  but,  if  not,  as  soon  as 
the  ground  is  free  from  frost,  and  is  dry  in  the  spring. 
The  rows  a  foot  apart,  and  the  plants  eight  inches  apart 
in  the  rows.  In  order  to  hasten  the  seed  up  in  the 
spring  (if  sown  then),  soak  it  four  days  and  nights  in 
rain-water  before  you  sow  it.  Put  it  two  inches  deep, 
cover  it  well,  and  press  the  earth  hard  down  upon  it. 
Sow  the  seed  pretty  thick  all  along  the  drill ;  and  when 
the  plants  come  up,  thin  them  to  eight  inches  apart. 
Hoc  between  tlie  plants  frLMjuently  :  but  not  very  deep; 
because  these  tap-rootud  things  are  apt  to  fork  if  the 
ground  be  made  loose  very  low  down  while  they  are 
growing. 

There  aie  yellow  and  white  beets,  as  well  as  red  ;  but 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  29 

the  red  is  the  true  kind :  the  others  are  degenerate. 
There  is,  however,  round  or  turnip-rooted  red  beet, 
which  is  ecjually  c^ood  with  the  tap-rooted  red  beet. 

Tlie  ground  should  be  rici),  but  not  fresh  dunged. 
Ashes  of  wood,  or  compost  mould,  is  best ;  and  the  dig- 
ging ought  to  be  very  deep,  and  all  the  clods  ought  to 
be  broken  into  fine  earth  ;  because  the  clods  turn  the 
point  of  the  root  aside,  and  make  the  tap  short,  or 
forked.  Fresh  dung,  which,  of  course,  lies  in  unequal 
quantities  in  the  ground,  invites  the  tap-root,  or  some  of 
the  side  roots  to  it,  and  thus  causes  a  short  or  forked 
beet,  which,  for  several  reasons,  is  not  so  good  as  a  long 
and  smooth  one. 

As  to  the  preserving  of  beets  during  the  winter,  it  is 
well  known,  that  the  way  is  to  put  them  in  a  dry  cel- 
lar, with  dry  sand  between  them,  or  indeed,  without 
sand  or  anything  at  all  between  them.  They  may,  if 
in  large  quantities,  and  not  wanted  till  spring,  be  pre- 
served out  of  doors,  thus:  Take  them  up  three  weeks 
before  the  hard  frost  is  to  come.  Cut  off  their  leaves ; 
let  them  lay  two  or  three  days  upon  straw,  or  boards, 
to  dry  in  the  sun;  then  lay  a  little  straw  upon  the 
ground,  and,  in  a  fine  dry  day,  place  ten  bushels  of  beets 
(picking  out  all  the  cut  or  bruised  ones)  upon  it  in  con- 
ical form.  Put  a  little  straw  smoothly  over  the  heap ; 
then  cover  the  whole  with  six  or  eight  inches  of  earth  5 
and  place  a  green  turf  at  the  top  to  prevent  the  earth 
from  being  washed  by  rain  from  the  point,  before  the 
frost  set  in.  The  whole  heap  will  freeze  during  the 
winter ;  but  the  frost  will  not  injure  the  beets,  nor  will 
it  injure  carrots,  preserved  in  the  same  way.  If  you 
have  more  than  ten  bushels,  make  another  heap,  or 
other  heaps,  for  fear  of  heating  before  the  frost  comes. 
When  that  comes,  all  is  safe  till  spring ;  and  it  is  in  the 
spring,  that  season  of  scarcity,  for  which  we  ought  to 
provide. 

BURNET 

Is  a  well   known  grass,  or  cattle  plant.     It  is  used  by 


30  THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER. 

some  in   salads.     When  bruised,  or  cut,  it  smells  like 
cucumber.     It  is  a  perennial. 

CABBAGE. 

In  the  open  ground  you  may  put  your  seed  rows  at 
six  inches  distance,  and  put  the  seeds  thin  in  the  row. 
As  soon  as  up,  thin  the  plants  to  three  inches  in  the 
row. 

To  liave  fine  cabbages,  of  any  sort,  the  plants  must 
be  twiv",e  transplanted.  First,  they  should  be  taken  from 
the  seed  bed  (where  they  have  been  sown  in  drills  near 
to  each  other.)  and  put  out  into  fresh  dug,  well  broken 
ground,  at  six  inches  apart  every  way.  By  standing 
here  about  fifteen  or  twenty  days,  they  get  straight  and 
strong,  stand  erect,  and  have  a  s-traight  and  stout  stem. 
Out  of  this  plantation  they  come  nearly  all  of  a  size  ; 
the  roots  of  all  are  in  the  same  state  ;  and,  they  strike 
quicker  into  the  ground  where  they  are  to  stand  for  a 
crop. 

Put  them  in  rows.  Plant  as  deep  as  you  can  without 
injury  to  the  leaves.  As  to  distances  they  must  be  pro- 
portioned to  the  size  which  the  cabbages  usually  come 
to.  However,  for  the  very  small  sorts,  the  early  dwarf, 
and  the  early  sea-green,  a  foot  apart  in  all  directions  is 
enough.  The  next  size  is  the  Early  York,  which  may 
have  16  inches  every  way.  The  sugar-loaf  may  have 
20  inches.  The  Battersea  and  Savoy  two  feet  and  a 
half  The  large  sorts,  as  the  drum-head  and  others, 
three  feet  at  least.  Now.  with  regard  to  tillage,  keep 
the  ground  clear  of  weeds.  But,  whether  there  be  weeds 
or  not,  hoe  between  the  plants  in  ten  days  after  they  are 
planted.  All  the  larger  sorts  of  cabbages  should,  about 
the  time  that  their  heads  are  beji^innino^  to  form,  be 
earthed  up ;  that  is,  have  the  earth  from  the  surface 
drawn  up  against  the  stem  ;  and,  the  taller  the  plants 
are,  the  more  necessary  this  is,  and  the  higher  should 
the  earth  be  drawn.  After  the  earth  has  been  thus 
drawn  up  from  the  surface,  dig,  or  hoe  deep  the  rest  of 


•.  THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  31 

the  ground.  Thus  tlie  crop  will  be  brought  to  perfec- 
tion. 

As  to  the  sorts,  the  earhest  is,  the  early  dwarf  (some- 
times called  the  early  Salisbury) ;  the  next  is  the  early 
sea  green  ;  then  comes  the  early  York.  The  sugar- 
loaf,  sweetest  and  richest  of  all  cabbages,  if  sown  and 
transplanted  when  early  Yorks  are,  will  head  nearly  a 
month  later.  It  is  an  excellent  cabbage  to  come  in  in 
July  and  August. 

For  the  winter  use,  there  really  needs  nothing  but  the 
dwarf  green  Savoy.  When  good  and  true  to  kind  it  is 
very  much  curled,  and  of  a  very  deep  green.  It  should 
be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  at  all  warm,  and 
planted  out  as  soon  as  stout  enough.  By  November  it 
will  have  large  and  close  heads,  weighing  from  five  to 
eight  pounds  each.  This  is  the  best  of  all  winter  cab- 
bages. If  you  have  drum-heads,  or  other  large  cab- 
bages, the  time  of  sowing  and  that  of  transplanting  are 
the  same  as  those  for  the  Savoy.  But,  let  me  observe 
here,  that  the  early  sorts  of  cabbage  keep  during  winter, 
as  well  as  the  large  late  sorts.  It  is  an  error  to  sup- 
pose, that  those  cabbages  only,  which  will  not  come  to 
perfection  til!  the  approach  of  winter,  wnll  keep  well. 
The  early  York,  sown  in  June,  will  be  right  hard  ia 
INovember,  and  will  keep  as  well  as  the  drum-head,  or 
any  of  the  coarse  and  strong-smelling  cabbages. 

To  preserve  cabbages  in  winter,  the  cellar  is  a  poor 
place.  The  barn  is  worse.  The  cabbages  get  putrid 
to  some  extent.  If  green  vegetables  be  not  fed  from 
the  earth,  and  be  in  an  unfrozen  state,  they  will  either 
wither  or  rot.  Nothing  is  nastier  than  putrid  cabbage ; 
and  one  rotten  cabbage  will  communicate  its  oflfensive- 
ness  to  a  whole  parcel. 

Lay  out  a  piece  of  ground,  four  feet  wide,  and  \r 
length  proportioned  to  your  quantity  of  cabbages  to  be 
preserved.  Dig  on  each  side  of  it  a  little  trench  a  foot 
deep,  and  throw  the  earth  up  on  the  four-feet  bed. 
Make  the  top  of  the  bed  level  and  smooth.  Lay  some 
poles,  or  old  rails,  at  a  foot  apart,  long-ways,  upon  the 


32  THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  * 

bed.  Then  put  some  smaller  poles,  or  stout  sticks,  cross 
ways  on  the  rails  or  poles,  and  put  these  last  at  five  or 
six  inches  apart.  Upon  these  lay  corn-stalks,  broom 
corn-stalks,  or  twigs  or  brush  of  trees,  not  very  thick^ 
but  sufficiently  thick  just  to  cover  all  over.  Make  the 
top  flat  and  smooth.  Then,  just  as  the  frost  is  about  to 
lock  up  the  earth,  take  up  the  cabbages,  knock  all  dirt 
out  of  their  roots,  take  off  all  dead  or  yellow  looking 
leaves,  and  some  of  the  outside  leaves  beside  ;  put  the 
cabbages,  head  downwards,  upon  the  bed,  with  their 
roots  sticking  up;  and  cover  them  with  straw  so  thick 
that  the  top  of  the  roots  are  nearly  covered.  Do  not 
pack  them  quite  close.  It  is  better  if  they  do  not  touch 
each  other  much.  Lay  some  bits  of  wood,  or  brush- 
wood, to  prevent  the  straw  from  blowing  off.  If  the  frost 
catch  you,  before  you  have  got  the  cabbages  up,  cut 
them  off  close  to  the  ground,  and  let  the  stumps,  instead 
of  the  roots,  stick  up  through  the  straw\ 

Out  of  this  stack  you  will  take  your  cabbages  perfect- 
ly green  and  good  in  the  spring  when  the  frosi  breaks 
up  ;  and  to  this  stack  you  can,  at  all  times  in  the  winter, 
go  with  the  greatest  facility,  and  get  your  cabbages  for 
use,  which  you  can  to  no  other  species  of  conservatory 
that  I  ever  saw  or  heard  of. 

Cabbage  stumps  are  also  to  be  preserved  ;  for  they  are 
very  useful  in  the  spring.  You  have  been  cutting  cab- 
bages to  eat  in  October  and  November.  You  leave  the 
stumps  standing,  no  matter  what  be  the  sort.  Take 
them  uj)  before  the  frost  sets  in  ;  trim  off  the  long  roots, 
and  lay  the  stumps  in  the  ground,  in  a  sloping  direction, 
row  behind  row,  with  their  heads  four  or  five  inches  out 
of  ground.  When  the  frost  has  just  set  in  in  earnest, 
and  not  before,  cover  the  stumps  all  over  a  foot  thick  or 
more,  with  straw,  corn-stalks,  or  evergreen  boughs  of 
some  sort.  As  soon  as  the"  hreaking-up  comes,  take  off 
the  covering,  and  stir  the  ground  (as  soon  as  dry,  by 
hoeing  amongst  the  stumps.  They  should  be  placed 
m  an  rarhj  t^pot  ;  in  one  of  the  warmest  places  you  have, 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  33 

and  they  will  give  you  an  abundance  of  fine  greens  to- 
wards file  end  of  April. 

Lastly,  as  to  the  saving  of  cabbage  seed.  The  cab- 
bage is  a  biennial.  It  brings  its  flower  and  its  seed  the 
second  year.  To  have  cabbage  seed,  therefore,  you 
must  preserve  the  cabbage,  head,  root  and  all,  through- 
out the  winter ;  and  this  must  be  done,  either  in  a  cel- 
lar, or  under  covering  of  some  sort  out  of  doors  ;  for,  the 
root  must  be  kept  in  the  ground  all  winter.  It  is  possi- 
ble, and,  I  think  likely,  that  seed  from  the  stump  is  just 
as  good  as  any ;  but  a  single  cabbage  will  give  seed 
enough  for  any  garden  for  three,  four,  or  five  years. 

CALABASH. 

An  annual.  Cultivated  like  the  cucumber,  which 
see. 

CAMOMILE 

Is  a  medicinal  herb  of  great  use.  It  is  a  perennial,  and, 
though  it  may  be  propagated  from  seed,  it  is  easiest  pro 
pagated  by  parting  the  roots.  One  little  bit  of  root  will 
soon  make  a  bed  sufficient  for  a  garden.  The  flowers 
are  used  in  medicine.  They  should  be  gathered  before 
they  begin  to  fade :  and  be  dried  in  a  gentle  sun,  or  in 
shade ;  and  then  put  by,  in  paper  bags,  in  a  dry  place. 

CAPSICUM  (or  peppers). 

An  aimual  plant,  sown  early  in  fine  earth,  in  drills  a 
foot  apart,  and  at  six  inches  apart  in  the  drills.  It  is 
handsome  as  a  flower,  and  its  pods  are  used  as  a 
pickle. 

CARAWAY. 

The  seeds  are  used  in  cakes.  The  plant  is  an  an- 
nual. Sow  in  the  spring,  in  fine  rich  ground,  and  leave 
the  plants  eight  inches  apart  each  way. 


< 


34  THE'  AMERICAN    GARDENER. 


CARROT. 

Read  the  Article,  Beet ;  for,  the  same  season,  same 
soil,  same  manure,  same  preparation  for  sowing,  same 
distances,  same  intercultivation,  same  time  of  taking  up, 
and  mode  of  preserving  the  crop,  all  belong  to  the  car- 
rot. Some  fine  roots  may  be  carefully  preserved  to  plant 
out  for  seed  in  the  spring;  and  the  seed  should  betaken 
only  from  the  centre  seed-stalks  of  the  carrots;  for  that 
is  the  finest. 

The  mark  of  a  good  kind  of  seed,  is  deep-red  color  of 
the  tap.  The  paler  ones  are  degenerate  ;  and  the  yel- 
low ones  are  fast  going  back  to  the  wild  carrot. 

CAULIFLOWER. 

It  is  a  cabbage,  and  the  French  call  it  the  flower- 
cabbage.  Its  head  is  a  lump  of  rich  pulp,  instead  of 
being,  as  a  cabbage-head  is.  a  parcel  of  leaves  folding  in 
towards  a  centre,  and  lapping  over  each  other.  The 
Cauliflower  is  an  annual  plant.  It  blows,  and  ripeiis  its 
seed  during  the  year  that  it  is  sown  ;  and,  in  fact,  the 
part  which  is  eaten,  is  not,  as  in  the  cabbage,  a  lump  of 
leaves,  but  the  seed  stalks,  pods,  and  blossoms,  in  their 
embryo  and  compact  state,  before  they  expand.  It  is 
the  same  with  Brocoli.  Cauhflowers  may  be  had  to  eat 
in  the  fall,  or  in  the  spring- 
To  have  Cauliflowers  to  eat  in  the  spring,  that  is  to 
say,  in  June,  you  must  sow  them  in  the  fall;  for,  they 
will  have  a  certain  age  before  their  heads  will  come. 
Yet,  they  are  very  tender. 

To  keep  them  through  winter,  there  must  not  only 
be  glass,  but  that  glass  (except  where  you  have  a  green- 
house to  be  kept  warm  by  lire,)  must  have  a  covering  in 
severe  weather.  If  you  are  too  backward  in  sowing, 
the  heads  no  not  begii^before  the  great  heat  comes  ;  and 
in  that  case,  they  will  not  head  till  the  fall.  Sow  (Long 
Island)  first  week,  or  second  week  in  September,  in  the 
same  manner  that  you  sow  cabbages.  When  the  plants 
have  eight  leaves,  put  them  in  a  warm  place,   in  the 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  91 

natural  ground,  and  do  not  put  much  dung  in  the 
ground.  The>  back  part  of  the  hot-bed  ground  would 
be  the  place 

To  have  Cauliflowers  to  eat  in  the  fall  is  a  much  easier 
matter  :  Sow  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  manner 
as  you  sow  early  cabbages.  Treat  the  plants  in  the 
same  way. 

CELERY. 

The  qualities  of  this  plant  are  universally  known. 
There  are  three  or  four  sorts.  The  white,  the  red,  the 
hollow,  and  the  solid.  The  hollow  white  is  the  best ; 
but  the  propagation  and  cultivation  of  all  are  the  same. 
The  whole  of  that  part  of  the  year,  during  which  the 
frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  is  not  a  bit  too  long  for  the 
getting  of  fine  celery.  The  seed,  sown  in  the  cold 
ground  in  April,  will  lie  six  weeks  before  it  comes  up. 
A  wheelbarrow  full  of  hot  dunsr,  put  in  a  hole  in  the 
ground  against  a  wall,  or  any  fence,  facing  the  south, 
and  covered  with  rich  and  fine  mould,  will  bring  the 
seed  up  in  two  weeks.  If  you  have  a  hot-bed  frame,  or 
a  hand-light,  the  thing  is  easy.  A  large  flower-pot  will 
bring  up  out  of  ground,  plants  enough  for  any  family. 
As  soon  as  the  plants  are  three  inches  high,  and  it 
scarcely  matters  how  thick  they  stand,  make  a  nice  little 
bed  in  the  open  free  air;  make  the  ground  rich  and  the 
earth  very  fine.  Here  prick  out  the  plants  at  four  inches 
apart ;  and,  of  course,  nine  in  a  square  foot.  They  are 
so  very  small,  that  this  must  be  carefully  done ;  and 
they  should  be  gently  watered  once,  and  shaded  two 
days.  A  bed  ten  feet  long  and  four  wide,  will  contain 
360  plants. 

In  this  bed  the  plants  stand  till  the  middle  of  .Tuly,  or 
thereabouts,  when  they  are  to  go  out  into  trenches. 
Make  the  trenches  a  foot  deep  and  a  foot  wide,  and  pul 
them  not  less  than  five  feet  asunder.  The  ground  that 
you  make  the  trenches  in  should  not  be  fresh  dug ;  but 
be  in  a  solid  state,  which  very  conveniently  may  be. 


t%  THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER. 

When  you  have  made  your  trench,  put  along  it  some 
good  rich  compost  manure,  partly  consisting  of  wood 
sishes.  Not  dung ;  or,  at  least,  not  dung  fresh  from  the 
yard  ;  for,  if  you  use  that,  the  celery  will  be  rank  and 
pipy,  and  will  not  keep  nearly  so  long  or  so  well.  Dig 
this  manure  in,  and  break  all  the  earth  very  fine  as  you 
go.  Then  take  up  your  plants,  and  trim  off  the  long 
roots.  You  will  find  that  every  plant  has  offsets  to  it, 
coming  up  by  the  side  of  the  main  stem.  Pull  all  these 
offj  and  leave  only  the  single  stem.  Gut  the  leaves  off 
80  as  to  leave  the  whole  plant  about  six  inches  long. 

Plant  them  six  inches  apart,  and  fix  them  in  the  man- 
ner dwelt  on  under  the  article  cabbage.  Do  not  water 
the  plants;  and  if  you  plant  in  fresh-dug  ground,  and 
fix  your  plants  well,  none  of  the  troublesome  and  cum- 
brous business  of  shading  is  at  all  necessary  ;  for  the 
plant  is  naturally  hardy,  and,  if  it  has  heat  to  wither  it 
above,  it  has  also  that  heat  beneath  to  cause  its  roots  to 
strike  out  almost  instantly. 

When  the  plants  begin  to  grow,  w^hich  they  quickly 
will  do,  hoe  on  each  side  and  between  them  with  a  small 
hoe.  As  they  grow  up,  earth  their  stems ;  that  is,  put 
the  earth  up  to  them,  but  not  too  much  at  a  time;  and 
let  the  earth  that  you  put  up  be  finely  broken,  and  not 
at  all  cloddy.  While  you  do  this,  keep  the  stalks  of  the 
outside  leaves  close  up  to  prevent  the  earth  from  getting 
between  the  stems  of  the  outside  leaves  and  the  inner 
ones  ;  for,  if  it  get  there  it  checks  the  plant  and  makes 
the  celery  bad. 

Thus  in  October,  you  will  have  four  ridges  of  celery 
across  one  of  the  plats,  each  containing  168  plants.  I 
shall  suppose  one  of  these  lidges  to  be  wanted  for  use 
before  the  frost  sets  in  for  good.  Leave  another  ridge 
to  be  locked  up  by  the  frost,  a  much  safer  guardian  than 
your  cellar  or  barn-door.  But,  you  must  cover  this 
ridge  over  in  such  a  way  that  the  wet  will  not  get  down 
into  the  hearts  of  the  celery.  For  the  celery  that  is  to 
serve  from  the  setting  in  to  the  breaking  up  of  the  frost, 
you  must  have  a  bed  of  sand,  or  light  earth,  in  a  warm 
part  of  a  barn,  or  in  a  cellar  ;  and  there  you  must  lay  it 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  W 

in,  row  after  row,  not  covering  the  points  of  the  leaves. 
To  have  seed,  take  one  plant  in  spring,  out  of  the  ridge 
left  in  the  garden. 

CORIANDER 

Is  an  annual  plant  thnt  some  persons  use  in  soups  and 
salads.  It  is  sown  in  spring.  The  seed  is  also  used  as 
a  medicine.  A  small  patch,  probably  two  square  yards, 
will  be  enough. 

CORN  (indian). 

To  have  some  early,  the  early  sorts  must  be  got.  A 
dozen  or  two  of  plants  may  be  easily  raised  in  pots,  as 
directed  for  Cucumbers. 

CORN-SALAD. 

This  is  a  little  insignificant  annual  plant  that  some 
persons  use  in  salads,  though  it  can  hardly  be  of  any 
real  use,  where  lettuce  seed  is  to  be  had.  It  is  a  mere 
weed. 

CRESS  (or  pepper-grass), 

Is  very  good  in  salads  along  with  lettuces,  white  mus- 
tard, or  rape.  It  should  be  sown  in  little  drills,  very 
thick  (as  should  the  white  mustard  and  rape),  and  cut 
before  it  comes  into  rough  leaf.  A  small  quantity,  in 
the  salad-season,  should  be  sown  every  six  days.  This 
salad,  as  well  as  the  mustard  and  the  rape,  may  be  very 
conveniently  raised  in  a  corner  of  a  hot-bed  made  for 
radishes  or  cabbage-plants. 

CUCUMBER. 

If  you  wish  to  have  them  a  month  earlier  than  the 
natural  ground  will  bring  them,  make  a  hole,  and  put 
into  it  a  little  hot  dung;  let  the  hole  be  under  a  warm 


mi  THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER. 

fence.  Put  six  inches  deep  of  fine  rich  earth  on  the 
dun^.  Sow  a  parcel  of  seeds  in  this  earth;  and  cover 
at  night  with  a  hit  of  carpet,  or  sail  cloth,  having  first 
fixed  some  hoops  over  liiis  httle  bed. 

Before  the  plants  show  the  rough  leaf,  plant  two  in 
a  little  flower-pot,  and  fill  as  many  pots  in  this  way  as 
you  please.  Have  a  larger  bed  ready  to  put  the  pots 
into,  and  covered  with  earth  so  that  the  pots  may  be 
phmged  in  the  earth  up  to  their  tops.  Cover  this  bed 
like  the  last. 

When  the  plants  have  got  two  rough  leaves  out,  they 
will  begin  to  make  a  shoot  in  the  middle.  Pinch  that 
short  off.  Let  them  stand  in  this  bed  till  your  cucum- 
bers sown  in  the  natural  ground  come  up;  then  make 
some  little  holes  in  good  i  ich  land,  and  taking  a  pot  at  a 
time,  turn  out  the  ball  and  fix  it  in  the  hole.  These 
plants  will  bear  a  month  sooner  than  those  sown  in  the 
natural  ground. 

The  cucumber  plant  is  very  tender  and  juicy  ;  and, 
therefore,  when  the  seedlings  are  put  into  the  pots,  they 
should  be  watered,  and  shaded  for  a  day  or  two;  when 
the  halls  are  tinned  into  the  ground,  they  should  be  wa- 
tered, and  shaded  with  a  bough  for  one  day.  One  plant 
in  a  hill  is  enough.  One  will  bring  more  weight  of 
fruit  than  two  (if  standing  near  each  other),  two  more 
than  three,  and  so  on,  till  you  come  to  fifty  in  a  square 
foot ;  and  then  you  will  have  no  fruit  at  all ! 

HOP. 

Any  bit  of  a  root  will  grow  and  become  a  plant.  The 
young  plants  should  be  planted  in  the  fall,  three  or  four 
together  in  a  clump,  or  lull,  and  the  hills  should  be  from 
seven  to  ten  feet  apart.  The  first  year  of  planting,  put 
four  rods,  or  little  poles,  to  each  hill,  and  let  two  vines 
go  up  each  pole,  treading  the  rest  of  the  vines  down  to 
creep  about  the  ground.  In  a  month  after  the  vines 
begin  to  tnount  the  poles,  cut  olf  all  the  creeping  vines; 
draw  up  a  hill  of  earth  against  the  poh.s  all  round,  and 
cover  all  the  crowns  of  the  plants.     In  short,  make  a 


4 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  39- 

hill  a  foot  liiirh  with  a  flattisli  top,  and  then  fork  up  the 
ground  between  the  hills  and  break  it  fine. 

AVhen  tlie  fall  comes,  cut  off  the  vines  that  have  gone 
up  the  pole  a  foot  from  the  ground  ;  take  down  the 
poles;  dig  down  the  hills,  and,  with  a  corn-hoe,  open 
the  ground  all  round  the  crowns  of  the  plants  ;  and,  be- 
fore winter  sets  in,  cut  all  close  down  to  the  very  crowns, 
and  then  cover  the  crowns  over  with  earth  three  or  four 
inches  thick.  Through  this  earth  the  hop-shoots  will 
start  in  the  spring.  You  will  want  but  eight  of  them 
to  go  up  your  four  poles  ;  and  the  rest,  when  three  inches 
long,  you  may  cut,  and  eat  as  asparagus;  cook  them  in 
the  same  manner,  and  you  will  find  ttiem  a  very  delight- 
ful vegetable. 

This  year  you  put  poles  20  feet  long  to  your  hops. 
Proceed  the  same  as  before,  only  make  the  hills  larger, 
and  this  year  you  will  have  plenty  of  hops  to  gather  for 
use.  The  next,  and  every  succeeding  year,  you  may 
put  poles  40  or  50  feet  long. 

HORSE-RADISH. 

Like  every  other  plant,  this  bears  seed  ;  but  it  is  best 
pr()j)agated  by  cutting  bits  of  its  roots  into  lengths  of 
two  inches,  and  putting  them,  spring  or  fall,  into  the 
ground  about  a  foot  deep  with  a  setting  stick.  They 
will  find  their  way  up  the  first  year ;  and  the  second  they 
*viil  be  fine  large  roots. 

HYSSOP 

\ 

Is  a  sort  of  shrub,  the  flower-spikes  of  which  are  used, 
fresh  or  dried,  for  medicinal  purposes.  It  is  propagated 
from  seed,  or  from  offsets. 

LETTUCE. 

It  is  good  in  stews  ;  good  boiled  with  green  peas ;  and, 
even  as  a  dish  boiled  as  cabbage  is,  it  is  an  excellent  ve- 


40  '    THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER. 

table.  There  are,  I  believe,  twenty  sorts,  two  of  whi<A 
only  it  will  be  enough  to  mention,  green-coss  and  whitf- 
coss,  the  former  of  which  is  of  a  darker  green  than  the 
latter,  is  rather  hardier,  and  not  quite  so  good.  These, 
when  true  to  their  kind,  and  in  a  proper  situation,  rise 
up,  and  fold  in  their  leaves  to  a  soHd  loaf,  like  a  sugar- 
loaf  cabbage,  and,  in  rich  land,  with  good  management, 
they  will  become  nearly  as  large, 

MARJORAM. 

Cut  it  just  before  it  comes  out  into  bloom,  hang  it  up 
in  little  bunches  to  dry,  first  for  a  day,  in  the  sun  ;  thcQ 
in  the  shade  :  and,  when  quite  dry,  put  it  in  paper  bags, 
tied  up,  and  the  bags  hung  up  in  a  dry  place. 

MARIGOLD. 

An  annual  plant.  Sow  the  seed  spring  or  fall ;  when 
the  bloom  is  at  full,  gather  the  flowers ;  pull  the  leaves 
of  the  flower  out  of  their  sockets  ;  lay  them  on  paper  to 
dry,  in  the  shade.  They  are  excellent  in  broths,  soups, 
and  stews. 

MELON. 

As  to  the  manner  of  propagating,  cultivating,  and 
sowing  the  seed  of  melons,  see  Cucumber,  and  only  ob- 
serve, that  all  that  is  there  said,  applies  to  melons  as 
well  as  to  cucumbers. 

MUSTARD. 

There  is  a  white-seeded  sort  and  a  brown-seeded.  The 
white  mustard  is  used' in  salads  along  with  the  cress,  or 
pepper-grass,  and  is  sown  and  cultivated  in  the  same 
way.  (See  Cress.)  The  black  is  that  which  table-mus- 
tard is  made  of 

It  is  sown  in  rows,  two  feet  apart,  early  in  the  spring. 
The  plants  ought  to  be   thinned  to  four  or  five  inches 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  41 

apart.  Good  tillage  between  the  rows.  The  seed  will 
be  n|)e  in  July,  and  then  the  stalks  should  be  cut  off, 
and  when  quite  dry,  the  seed  threshed  out,  and  put  by 
for  use. 

ONION. 

Sow  in  the  fall  or  early  in  the  spring-.  Let  the  ground 
be  rich,  but  not  from  fresh  dung.  Make  the  ground  very 
fine  ;  make  the  rows  a  foot  apart,  and  scatter  the  seed 
thinly  along  a  drill  two  inches  deep.  When  the  plants 
get  to  be  three  inches  high,  thin  them  to  four  inches,  or 
to  eight  inches  if  you  wish  to  have  very  large  onions. 
When  the  leaves  are  nearly  dead,  pull  up  the  onions,  and 
lay  them  to  dry,  in  order  to  be  put  away  for  winter  use. 

PARSLEY. 

It  may  be  sown  at  any  season  when  the  frost  is  out 
of  the  ground.  The  best  way  is  to  sow  it  in  spring,  and 
in  very  clean  ground  ;  because  the  seed  lies  long  in  the 
ground,  and,  if  the  ground  be  foul  the  weeds  choke  the 
plants  at  their  coming  up. 

PARSNIP. 

The  season  of  sowing,  sort  of  land,  preparation  of 
ground,  distances,  and  cultivation,  and  tillage,are  pre- 
cisely the  same  as  the  Carrot,  which  see. 

PEA. 

The  soil  should  be  good,  and  fresh  dung  is  good  ma- 
nure for  them.  Ashes,  and  compost,  are  very  good. 
The  earliest  of  all  is  the  little  white  pea,  called  in  Long 
Island,  the  May-pea. 

If  you  sow  in  the  spring,  do  it  as  soon  as  the  grouud 
is  dry  enough  to  go  upon.  Sow  the  May-pea,  some 
Charletons.  some  Hotspurs,  some  Blue-peas,  some  Mar- 
rowfats, and  some  Knight-pea,  all  at  the  same  time,  and 


^-  THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER. 

they  will  come  up  one  after  another,  so  as  to  give  you  g^reeu 
peas  till  nearly  August.  In  .Tune  (about  the  middle), 
sow  some  early  peas  again,  and  also  some  Marrowfats 
and  Knight-peas  ;  and  these  will  give  you  peas  till  Sep- 
tember. 

PENNYROYAL. 

A  medicinal  herb.     It  is  perennial. 

POTATO. 

Every  body  knows  how  to  cultivate  this  plant. 

POTATO    (sweet). 

This  plant  is  cultivated  in  much  the  same  way  as  the 
last.     Heat  is  what  it  chiefly  wants. 

PUMPKIN. 

See  cucumber.     The  cultivation  is  the  same. 

RADISH. 

A  great  variety  of  sorts.  Sown  thin  in  little  drills  six 
inches  asurider.     Sown  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring. 

RHUBARB. 

It  comes  forth,  like  the  dock,  very  early  in  the  spring. 
When  its  leaves  are  pretty  large,  you  cut  them  off  close 
to  the  stem,  and  if  the  plant  be  fine,  the  stalk  of  the 
leaf  will  be  from  eight  inches  to  a  foot  long.  You  peel 
the  outside  skin  from  these  stalks,  and  th^u  cut  the  stalks 
up  into  bits.  You  put  these  into  puddings,  pies,  tarts, 
just  as  you  would  green  goose-berries,  and  green  cur- 
rants. 

SAGE 

Is, raised  from  seed,  or  from  slips. 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  43 


SAVORY. 

Two  sorts,  summer  and  winter.  The  former  is  an- 
nual, anil  the  latter  is  perennial. 

SQUASH 

Is,  in  all  its  varieties,  cultivated  like  the  Cucumber. 

TOMATUM. 

It  climbs  up  very  high,  and  would  require  bushy  sticks. 
This  fruit  is  used  to  thicken  stews  and  soups.  It  is 
raised  from  seed  only,  being  an  annual.- 

TURNIP. 

The  best  kinds  of  turnips  are  the  early  white,  the  flat 
yellow,  and  the  Swedishy  or  ruta-baga.  The  two  former 
sorts  should  be  sown  about  the  end  of  July,  in  rows  (in  a 
garden)  two  feet  apart,  and  thinned  out  to  a  foot  dis- 
tance in  the  rows.  The  Swedish  turnip,  so  generally 
preferred  for  table  use,  ought  to  be  sown  early  in  June, 
in  rows  at  a  foot  apart,  and  thinned  to  three  inches  in 
the  rows.  About  the  middle  of  July  they  ought  to  be 
transplanted  upon  ridges  three  feet  apart.  For  preserv- 
ing turnips  during  the  winter,  follow  precisely  the  direc- 
tions given  for  the  preserviiig  of  Beets.     See  Beet. 


FLOWERS  AND  ORNAMENTAL  GARDENING. 

The  smaller  kinds  of  flowers,  a.nd  even  small  shrubs, 
such  as  roses,  dwarf  honey-suckles,  and  the  like,  may  be 
planted  by  the  sides  of  the  broad  walks  in  the  kitchen 
garden,  or,  a  little  piece  of  ground  may  be  set  apart  for 
the  purpose.  In  cases  where  there  are  what  are  usu- 
ally called  pleasure-grounds,  large  shrubs,  and  if  the 
grounds  be  extensive,  lofty  trees  come  in.  And,  in  the 
placing  of  the  whole  of  the  trees  and  plants,  the  most 
lofty  should  be  farthest  from  the  walk. 

Flowers  are  divided  into  annuals,  biennials  and  peren- 
nials. The  first  blow  and  die  the  year  they  are  sown  ; 
the  second  blow  the  second  year  and  then  die  ;  the  third 
sometimes  blow  the  first  year  and  sometimes  not,  and 
die  down  to  the  ground  annually,  but  spring  up  again 
every  spring. 

ALTHEA    FRUTEX. 

It  is  raised  from  seed,  or  from  suckers.  There  are 
several  sorts,  as  to  colors.  They  should  be  mixed  to 
make  a  variety.  Save  the  seed  in  November  or  Decem- 
ber. The  pods  are  full.  Sow  in  the  spring.  Seed  pro- 
duces the  handsomest  shrub;  and  it  is  to  be  got  ahnost 
any  \there. 

AXKMONK. 

This  is  a  very  bt^ausiful  flower,  and  worthy  of  great 
pains.  It  is  raised  from  svci],  or  from  pit  ens  of  the  roots. 
Sow  the  seed   in  spring,     Tlie  plartt  does  no.'   blow  the 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  45 

first  year.  The  root,  which  is  tuberous,  is  taken  up  in 
the  fall,  dried  in  the  sun.  and  put  by  in  the  dry  till  spring", 
when  it  is  put  into  the  ground  again.  And,  during  the 
summer,  it  sends  out  young  roots,  which  must  be  taken 
off  and  planted  out,  to  become  blowers.  There  is  a 
great  variety  of  colors  and  of  sizes  of  this  flower. 

ARBUTUS. 

A  pretty  ever-green,  as  well  known  as  the  oak  tree. 

ASTRE    (china), 

Astre  is  French  for  star,  and  this  flower  in  its  shape, 
resembles  a  star  to  our  view.  It  is  annual,  bears  great 
Quantities  of  seed,  and  is  sown  early  in  spring.  An  in- 
finite variety  of  colors,  and  great  quantities  of  blossoms. 

AZALIA. 

That  little  American  Honeysuckle  that  impedes  our 
steps  when  shooting  on  the  skirts  of  woods.  It  however, 
blows  profusely,  though  it  has  no  smell  like  the  English 
honeysuckle. 

BALSAM 

Is  an  annual  and  a  most  beautiful  plant,  with  great 
abundance  of  flowers.  Sow  when  you  sow  melons,  at  a 
distance  of  four  feet;  leave  only  one  plant  in  a  place; 
let  the  ground  be  rich  and  kept  clean  ;  it  will  blow  early 
in  July,  and  will  keep  growing  and  blowing  till  the  frost 
comes,  and  then,  like  the  cucumber,  it  is  instantly  cut 
down. 

BRIAR  (sweet). 

A  well  known  shrub  of  the  rose  kind.  Bows  of  it 
carefully  planted  and  pruned  make  very  good  hedges. 


46  THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER. 

CAMILLIA. 

It  bears  a  flower,  which,  when  open,  resembles  a  good 
deal  a  lari^e  full-blown  rose  ;  and  these  flowers,  on  dif- 
ferent plants,  are  of  diflerent  colors.  It  is  raised,  doubt- 
less, from  seed  ;  but  it  may  be  grafted  on  the  hawthorn; 
and,  I  dare  say,  on  the  crab. 

CARNATION. 

Here  is  beauty  and  fragrance,  and  both  in  the  highest 
degree.  There  are  various  sorts.  If  sown,  the  carnation 
does  not  blow  till  the  second  year.  It  is  usually  propa- 
gated by  layers.  While  it  is  blowing,  it  sends  out  several 
side  shoots  near  the  ground.  These  are  pinned  down 
in  August  to  the  earth,  with  a  little  stick  wiih  a  hook 
at  the  end  of  it.  A  little  cut,  or  tongue,  is  made  on  the 
under  side  of  the  shoot ;  and  thus  the  head  of  the  shoot 
is  brought  upright.  The  part  that  touches  the  ground 
is  well  covered  with  earth  ;  and  roots  come  out  here  be- 
fore the  fall.  Then  the  stalk,  which  connects  the  young 
plant  with  the  old  one  is  cut  off;  the  young  plant  is 
transplanted,  and  the  next  year  it  blows.  The  old  root 
does  not  stand  another  year  well ;  and,  therefore,  its 
branches  are  thus  made  use  of  to  keep  up  the  race  and 
the  sort. 

Carnations  are  rather  tender  as  to  frost ;  and  must  be 
well  covered  in  this  country  lo  live  through  the  winter. 
It  is  best  to  put  them  in  large  pots  to  give  room  for  lay- 
ing ;  and  to  keep  them  in  a  green-house  in  winter,  or  in 
some  house,  where  they  can  have  sun  and  air. 

CLOVE. 

It  is  only  a  more  handy  and  less  esteemed  sort  or  Car- 
nation, which  see. 

COLUMBINE. 

A  perennial.     Very  common  ;  but  very  pretty. 


THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER.  HfT 


COWSLIP. 

It  is  of  a  delicate  yellow  color,  and  sends  forth  many 
blossoms  from  llie  same  stem,  which  rises  about  sir 
inches  from  the  ground.  It  may  easily  be  propagated 
from  seed,  which  it  bears  in  great  abundance,  but,  when 
you  once  have  a  plant,  the  easiest  way  is  to  propagate 
from  ofTsets.  The  plants  raised  from  seed  do  not  blow 
till  the  second  year.  The  plant  is  perennial.  The 
flower  has  a  delicate  sweet  smell,  and  also  sweet  taste. 

CROCUS. 

A  bulbous  rooted  plant.  It  is  recommended  by  its 
earliness.  It  is  perfectly  hardy.  The  only  thing  to  do 
when  it  is  once  planted,  is  to  take  care  that  it  does  not 
fill  all  the  ground  near  it.  There  are  yellow,  blue,  and 
white  Crocuses. 

DAISY. 

It  is  a  most  beautiful  little  flower,  and  blows  without 
ceasing-  at  all  times  when  the  grass  grows.  Their  colors 
present  an  endless  variety  ;  and  those  grown  in  gardens 
are  double,  l^ere  is  one  sort  called  the  Hen-and-chicken 
Daisy,  that  has  a  ring  of  little  flowers  surrounding  the 
main  flower.  This  plant  may  be  raised  from  ofl^sets  or 
seed,  in  which  last  case  it  blows  the  second  year.  It  is 
perennial. 

GERANIUM 

Wants  hardiness  only  to  make  it  the  finest  flower-plant. 
The  Geranium  has  a  beautiful  leaf,  beautiful  flower, 
flagrant  smell  from  leaf  as  well  as  from  flower,  and  these 
it  has  in  never-ceasing  abundance  ;  and  as  to  variety  of 
sorts,  as  well  in  leaf  as  in  flower,  it  surpasses  almost 
every  plant.  The  geranium  is  propagated  from  seed,  or 
from  cuttings. 


48  THE    AMERICAN    GARDENER. 


GUELDER-ROSE. 


This  is  called  the  Snow-ball  tree.  It  is  raised  either 
from  la)'ers  or  suckers.  Its  bloom  is  of  short  duration  ; 
but  for  the  time  makes  a  great  show  in  shrubbery.  The 
suckers  of  it  ought  to  be  dug  clean  away  every  year. 


HOLLYHOCK. 

This  is  a  fine  showy  plant  for  shrubbery.  There  are 
double  and  single,  and  none  but  the  double  should  be 
cultivated.  It  may  be  raised  from  seed,  or  from  offsets. 
If  the  former  it  does  not  blow  till  the  second  year. 

HONEYSUCKLE. 

Its  name  indicates  its  sweetness  of  taste,  and  the  smell 
is  del'ghtful  almost  beyond  comparison.  The  plant  is 
also  beautiful :  it  climbs  up  houses  and  over  hedges ;  it 
forms  arbors  and  bowers.  It  may  be  propagated  from 
seed  ;  but  always  is  from  cuttings  ;  put  into  the  ground 
in  spring,  and  treat  like  other  wood-cuttings. 

*   HYACINTH. 

This  is  a  bulbous-rooted  plant,  and,  like  the  plants  of 
that  class,  is  perennial.  It  may  be  raised  from  seed. 
The  roots  are  propagated  from  off-sets;  they  do  not  blow 
the  first  year,  and  if  weak,  not  the  second. 

ROSES. 

It  is  the  queen  of  flowers.  All  roses  may  be  propa- 
gated from  seed  ;  but  as  the  seed  seldom  comes  up  till 
the  second  year,  and  as  the  plants  come  to  perfection 
slowly,  the  usual  mode  of  propagation  of  all  sorts,  except 
the  China  rose,  is  by  suckers.  These  come  out  near  old 
stems,  during  the  summer ;  they  are  dug  up  in  the  fall 
and  planted  out.  In  the  spring  they  are  cut  down  near 
to  the  ground,  and  the  next  year  they  blow. 


THE    HORSE   DOCTOR. 

BY  DR.  WM.  YOUATT. 


INJURIES  AND  DISEASES   OF  THE  SKULL— 
THE  BRAIN— THE  EARS— AND  THE  EYES. 

FRACTURE. 

The  bones  of  the  head  are  so  exceedingly  thick,  that 
a  fracture  of  the  skull  is  almost  impossible.  It  can  only 
occur  fiOm  brutal  violence,  or  when  a  horse  falls  in  the 
act  of  rearing.  When,  however,  fracture  of  the  skull 
does  occur,  it  is  almost  invariably  fatal. 

The  ridge,  or  outer  and  upper  part  of  the  orbit  of  the 
eye,  is  occasionally  fractured.  It  happens  from  falling, 
or  much  oftener  from  violent  blows.  The  slightest  ex- 
amination will  detect  the  loosened  pieces ;  but  a  profes- 
sional man  alone  can  render  effectual  assistance. 

PRESSURE    OF    THE    BRAIN. 

This  may  be  produced  by  some  fluid  thrown  out  be- 
tween the  membranes,  or  occupying  and  distending  the 
ventricles  of  the  brain.  In  the  full-grown  horse  it  rarely 
occurs  ;  but  it  is  well  known  to  breeders  as  an  occa- 
sional disease  of  the  foal,  under  the  name  of  "  water  in 
the  head." 


8  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

MEGRIMS. 

From  various  causes,  of  which  the  most  common 
is  violent  exercise  on  a  hot  day,  when  the  collar 
is  too  small,  or  the  curb-rein  too  tight — the  blood  is 
prevented  from  returning  from  the  head.  The  larger 
vessels  of  the  brain  will  then  be  too  long  and  injuriously- 
distended  ;  and,  what  is  of  more  consequence,  the  small 
vessels  that  permeate  the  substance  of  the  brain  will  be 
enlarged,  and  the  bulk  of  the  brain  increased,  so  that  it 
will  press  upon  the  origins  of  the  nerves,  and  produce, 
almost  without  warning,  loss  of  power  and  conscious- 
ness. 

The  mildest  affection  of  this  kind  is  known  by  the 
name  of  megrims. 

At  the  moment  of  attack,  a  person  who  is  competent 
to  the  task  should  abstract  three  or  four  quarts  of  blooct 
from  the  neck-vein  ;  or  cut  the  bars  of  the  palate,  and 
whence  a  considerable  and  sufficient  quantity  of  blood 
may  be  readily  obtained. 

APOPLEXY,  OR    STAGGERS. 

Megrims  is  Apoplexy  under  its  mildest  form.  In  the 
latter  affection,  the  determination  of  blood,  if  not  so  sud- 
den, is  greater,  or  differently  directed,  or  more  lasting. 

Sy^nptoms, — The  horse  is  a  little  off  his  feed — he  is 
more  than  usually  dull — there  is  a  degree  of  stupidity 
about  him,  and,  generally,  a  somewhat  staggering  gait. 
The  last  act  of  voluntary  motion  which  he  will  attempt 
is  usually  to  drink ;  but  he  has  little  power  over  the 
muscles  of  deglutition,  and  the  fluid  retUrns  through  the 
nostrils. 

He  now  begins  to  foam  at  the  mouth.  His  breathing 
is  laborious  and  loud.  It  is  performed  by  the  influence 
of  the  organic  nerves,  and  those  of  animal  life  no  longer 
lend  their  aid. 

All  the  powers  of  life  are  oppressed,  and  death  speedily 
closes  the  scene. 


HORSE    DOCTOR.  9 

Trcalment. — HIeeding  is  the  fust  measure  indicated 
—the  overloaded  vessels  of  tlie  hrain  must  be  reUeved. 
The  jug-ular  vein  sliould  be  immediately  opened.  It  is 
easily  got  at— it  is  large — the  blood  may  be  drawn  frona 
it  in  a  full  stream.  No  definite  quantity  of  blood  should 
be  ordered  to  be  abstracted.  The  eflfect  produced  must 
be  the  guide. 

PHRENITIS. 

Symptoms. — The  horse  is  drowsy,  stupid ;  his  eye 
closes  ;  he  sleeps  while  he  is  in  the  act  of  eating,  and 
doses  until  he  falls. 

Remedy. — In  a  case  of  evident  phrenitis,  blood-letting 
and  physic  must  be  early  carried  to  their  full  extent. 
The  horse  will  often  be  materially  relieved,  and,  per- 
haps, cured  by  this  decisive  treatment. 

RABIES.   OR    MADNESS. 

Symptoms. — The  horse  stops  all  at  once — trembles, 
heaves,  paws,  staggers,  and  falls. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases — or  rather,  with  very 
few  exceptions — a  state  of  excitation  ensues,  which  is 
not  exceeded  by  that  of  the  dog  under  the  most  fearful 
form  of  the  malady. 

The  disease  rarely  extends  beyond  the  third  day. 

When  the  disease  can  be  clearly  connected  with  a 
previous  bite,  the  sooner  the  animal  is  destroyed  the 
better,  for  there  is  no  cure. 

TETANUS,     OR    LOCKED    JAW. 

Symptoms. — The  horse,  for  a  day  or  two,  does  not 
appear  to  be  quite  well  ;  he  does  not  feed  as  usual ;  he 
partly  chews  his  food,  and  drops  it;  and  he  gulps  his 
water.  The  owner  can  only  open  the  mouth  a  very 
little  way,  or  the  jaws  are  perfectly  and  rigidly  closed. 

The  nostril  is  expanded  to  the  utmost. 


fO  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

By  degrees  the  spasm  extends  and  becomes  every- 
where more  violent.  The  motion  of  the  whole  frame  is 
lost,  and  the  horse  stands  fixed  in  the  unnatural  posture 
which  he  has  assumed. 

The  foot  is  the  most  frequent  source  or  focus  of  teta- 
nic injury.  It  has  been  pricked  in  shoeing,  or  wounded 
by  something  on  the  road.  The  horse  becomes  lame — 
the  injury  is  carelessly  treated,  or  not  treated  at  all. 

Remedy. — The  system  must  be  tranquillized.  The 
grand  agent  in  accompUshing  this  is  the  copious  abstrac- 
tion of  blood.  Bleed  until  the  horse  falters  or  falls. 
Twenty  pounds  have  been  taken  before  the  object  of 
the  practitioner  was  accomplished. 

Next  in  order,  and  equal  in  importance,  is  physic. 

Eight  or  ten  drachms  of  aloes  should  be  adminis- 
tered. 

CRAMP. 

This  is  a  sudden,  involuntary  and  painful  spasm  of  a 
particular  muscle  or  set  of  muscles.  It  differs  from  te- 
tanus in  its  shorter  duration,  and  in  its  occasionally  at- 
tacking the  muscles  or  organic  life. 

The  attendant  on  the  horse  should  endeavor  to  find 
out  the  muscle  chiefly  affected.  Give  plenty  of  good 
hand-rubbing. 

STRJNGHALT. 

This  is  a  sudden  and  spasmodic  action  of  some  of  the 
muscles  of  the  thigh  when  the  horse  is  first  led  from  the 
stable.  One  or  both  legs  are  caught  up  at  every  step 
with  great  rapidity  and  violence,  so  that  the  fetlock  some- 
times touches  the  belly  ;  but,  after  the  horse  has  been 
out  a  little  while,  this  usually  goes  off  and  the  natural 
action  of  the  animal  returns. 

PALSY. 

The  stream  of  nervous  influence  is  sometimes  stopped, 


nORSE    DOCTOR.  11 

and  thence  results  palsy.     Every  organ  of  motion  and 
of  sense  is  paralyzed. 

Palsy  in  the  horse  generally  attacks  the  hind  extre- 
mities. It  commences  generally  in  one  hind  leg,  or  per- 
haps both  are  equally  afiected.  The  animal  can  scarce- 
ly walk. 

Treat fji^if. —  Commence  with  bleeding.  Continue 
until  the  pulse  begins  to  falter  or  the  horse  to  reel.  To 
this  should  follow  a  dose  of  physic — strong,  compared 
with  the  size  of  the  animal.  The  loins  should  be  co- 
vered with  a  mustard  poultice  frequently  renewed.  The 
patient  should  be  warmly  clothed,  supplied  plentifully 
with  mashes,  but  without  a  grain  of  corn  in  them  ;  and 
frequent  injections  should  be  had  recourse  to. 

RHEUMATISM. 

The  lameness  is  frequently  excessive,  and  the  pain  is 
evidently  excruciating.  He  is  heaving  at  the  flEinks, 
sweating  profusely,  his  countenance  plainly  indicative 
of  the  agony  he  feels ;  but  there  is  at  first  no  heat,  or 
swelling,  or  tenderness. 

Mr.  Cooper,  of  Coleshill,  relates  a  case  very  applica- 
ble to  the  present  subject :  A  farmer  purchased  a  horse, 
to  all  appearances  sound.  He  was  worked  on  the  two 
following  days,  without  showing  the  least  lameness. 
On  the  third  day  it  was  with  great  difficulty  that  he 
managed  to  limp  out  of  the  stable.  The  horse  had 
clean  legs  and  excellent  feet.  The  owner  would  have 
him  blistered  all  around.  It  was  done.  The  horse  was 
turned  out  to  grass  for  two  months,  and  came  up  per- 
fectly sound. 

SPECIFIC  OPHTHALMIA,  OR  MOON-BLINDNESS. 

Should  three  or  four  days  pass,  and  the  inflammation 
not  be  abated,  we  may  begin  to  suspect  that  it  is  ophthal- 
mia, especially  if  the  eye  is  very  impatient  of  light,  and 
the  cornea    is    considerably    clouded.      Even   the   iris 


12  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

changes   its  color,  and   the   pupil  is   exceedingly  coq- 
tracted. 

Finally,  deeply-seated  cloudiness  begins  to  appear ; 
and  after  repeated  attacks  and  alternations  of  disease 
from  eye  to  eye,  the  afTair  terminates  in  opacity  of  the 
lens  or  its  capsule,  attended  with  perfect  blindness  either 
of  one  eye  or  both. 

# 

Remedy.- — Foment  the  eyes  with  warm  water,  or  ajv 
ply  cold  lotions  with  the  extract  of  lead  oi  opium,  or 
pouUices  to  which  these  drugs  may  be  added  ;  bleed — 
not  from  the  temporal  artery,  for  that  does  not  supply 
the  orbit  of  the  eye,  but  from  the  angular  vein,  at  the 
inner  corner  of  the  eye.  Place  a  seton  in  the  cheek,  or 
towel  under  the  jaw,  and  keep  the  animal  low,  and  give 
physic  or  fever  medicine. 


NASAL    POLYPUS. 

By  the  polypus,  is  meant  an  excrescence  or  tumor, 
varying  in  size,  structure,  and  consistence,  and  attached 
by  a  pedicle  to  a  mucous  surface.  The  true  polypus  is 
attached  to  mucous  membranes,  and  is  usually  found  in 
the  nostrils,  the  pharynx,  the  uterus,  or  the  vagina. 

How  is  the  surgeon  to  proceed?  If  he  cannot  fairly 
get  at  tlie  tumor  he  will  let  it  alone.  The  polypus  will 
at  length  descend,  and  be  easily  got  at.  The  tumor 
must  be  gently  brought  down,  and  a  ligature  passed 
round  the  pedicle,  as  high  up  as  it  can  conveniently  be 
placed. 

If  the  pt)lypus  is  so  large  that  it  cannot  well  be  re- 
turned after  it  has  been  brought  down,  he  must,  not- 
withstanding, use  the  ligature,  passing  it  around  the  pe- 
dicle sufficiently  tight  to  cut  off  the  supply  of  blood  to 
the  tumor.  He  may  then  immediately  excise  it.  Ex- 
cept the  pedicle  is  exceedingly  thick,  there  will  be  little 
(»•  no  haimorrhajre. 


HORSE    DOCTOR.  13 


GLANDERS. 


The  most  formidable  of  all  the  diseases  to  which  the 
horse  is  subject,  is  glanders. 

The  earliest  s3'mptom  of  inlanders  is  an  increased  dis- 
charge from  the  nostril,  snialf  in  quantity,  constantly- 
flowing,  of  an  aqueous  character,  and  a  little  niucus 
mingling  with  it. 

The  peculiar  viscidity  and  gluiness  which  is  general- 
ly supposed  to  distinguish  the  discharge  of  glanders  from 
ail  other  mucous  and  prevalent  secretions  belong,  to  the 
second  stage  of  the  disease. 

In  process  of  time,  however,  pus  mingles  with  the  dis- 
charge. The  neighboring  glands  become  affected. 
Spots  of  ulceration  wiU  probably  appear  on  the  mem- 
brane covering  the  cartilage  of  the  nose.  The  patient 
loses  flesh — his  belly  is  tucked  up — his  coat  unthrifty, 
and  readily  coming  off — the  appetite  is  impaired — the 
strength  fails — cough,  more  or  less  urgent,  may  be  heard 
— ths  dij^charge  fron)  the  nose  will  increase  in  quantity  ; 
it  will  be  discolored,  bloody,  offensive  to  the  smell — the 
ulcers  in  the  nose  will  beco!ne  larger  and  more  numer- 
ous, and  the  air-passages  being  obstructed,  a  grating, 
choking  noise  will  be  heard  at  every  act  of  breathing. 

At  or  before  this  time,  httle  tumors  appear  about  the 
muscles,  and  face  and  neck  ;  and  these,  the  tumors  soon 
ulcerate. 

The  deeper-seated  absorbents  are  next  affected  ;  and 
one  or  both  of  the  hind-legs  swell  to  a  great  size,  and 
become  stiff,  and  hot,  and  tender.  The  animal  presents 
one  mass  of  putrefaction,  and  at  last  dies  exhausted. 

Improper  stable  management  we  believe  to  be  a  far 
more  frequent  cause  of  slanders  than  contagion. 

Among  the  causes  of  glanders  is  want  of  regular  ex- 
cise. 

There  is  not  a  disease  which  may  not  lay  the  foun- 
dation for  glanders. 

The  disease  may  be  very  readily  communicated.   One 


14  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

horse  has  passed  another  when  he  was  in  the  act  of 
snorting,  and  has  become  glandered. 

As  for  medicine,  there  is  scarcely  a  dru^  to  which  a 
fair  trial  has  not  been  given,  and  many  of  them  have 
had  a  temporary  reputation.  The  blue  vitriol  and  the 
Spanish  fly  have  held  out  the  longest. 

If,  however,  remedial  measures  are  resorted  to,  a  pure 
atmosphere  is  that  which  should  first  be  tried. 

Little  that  is  satisfactory  can  be  said  of  the  prevention 
of  glanders. 

The  first  and  most  eflfectual  mode  of  prevention  will 
be  to  keep  the  stables  cool  and  well  ventilated,  for  the 
hot  and  poisoned  air  of  low  and  confined  stables  is  one 
of  the  most  prevalent  causes  of  glanders. 

Glanders  in  the  human  being. — It  cannot  be  too  often 
repeated,  that  a  glandered  horse  can  rarely  remain 
among  sound  ones  without  serious  mischief  ensuing  ; 
and,  worse  than  all,  the  man  who  attends  on  that  horse 
is  in  danger.  The  cases  are  now  becoming  far  too  nu- 
merous ill  which  the  groom  or  the  veterinary  surgeon 
attending  on  glandered  horses  becomes  infected,  and  in 
the  majority  of  cases  dies.  It  is,  however,  somewhat 
more  nianageable  in  the  human  being  than  in  the 
quadruped.  Some  cases  of  recovery  from  farcy  and 
glanders  stand  on  record  with  regard  to  the  human  be- 
ing, but  they  are  few  and  far  between. 

STRANGLES. 

It  is  preceded  by  cough,  and  can  at  first  be  scarcely- 
distinguished  from  common  cough,  except  that  there  is 
more  discharge  from  the  nostril,  of  a  yellowish  color, 
mixed  with  pus,  and  generally  without  smell. 

There  is  likewise  a  considerable  discharge  of  ropy 
fluid  from  the  mouth,  and  greater  swelling  than  usual 
under  the  throat. 

In  the  attempt  to  swallow^  and  sometimes  when  not 
drinking,  a  convulsive  cough   comes  on,  which  almost 


HORSE    DOCTOR.  15 

threatens  to  suflfocate  the  animal — and  thence,  proba- 
bly, the  name  of  the  disease. 

The  tumor  is  under  the  jaw,  and  about  the  centre 
of  the  channel. 

Treatment. — As  soon  as  the  tumor  of  strangles  is  de- 
cidedly apparent,  the  part  should  be  actively  blistered. 
A  blister  will  not  only  secure  the  completion  of  the  pro- 
cess, but  hasten  it  by  many  days,  and  save  the  patient 
much  pain  and  exhaustion.  As  soon  as  the  swelling  is 
soft  on  its  summit,  and  evidently  contains  matter,  it 
shoule  be  freely  and  deeply  lanced. 

If  there  is  much  fever,  it  will  be  proper  to  bleed.  In 
the  majority  of  cases,  however,  bleeding  will  not  only 
be  unnecessary,  but  injurious. 

Bran-mashes,  or  fresh-cut  grass  or  tares,  should  be 
liberally  supplied,  which  will  not  only  afford  sufficient 
nourishment  to  recruit  the  strength  of  the  animal,  but 
keep  the  bowels  gently  open. 

CATARRH,    OR    COLD. 

Catarrh,  or  Cold,  is  attended  by  a  slight  defluxion 
from  the  nose — now  and  then,  a  slighter  weeping  from 
the  eyes,  and  some  increased  labor  of  breathing,  on  ac- 
count of  the  uneasiness  which  the  animal  experiences 
from  the  passage  of  the  air  over  the  naturally  sensitive, 
and  now  more  than  usually  irritable  surface,  and  from 
the  air-passage  being  diminished  by  a  thickening  of  the 
membrane. 

In  the  majority  of  cases,  a  few  warm  mashes,  warm 
clothing,  and  a  warm  stable — a  fever-ball  or  two,  with 
a  drachm  of  aloes  in  each,  and  a  little  antimony  in  the 
ovening  will  set  all  right. 

CHRONIC    COUGH. 

It  is  sometimes  connected  with  worms.  There  is 
much  sympathy  between    the  lungs  and  the  intestines, 


16  HORSi!:    DOCTOR. 

and  the  one  readily  participates  in  the  irritation  produ- 
ced in  the  other. 

Jf  a  hard  hollow  cough  is  accompanied  by  a  staring 
coat,  and  the  appearance  of  worms, — a  few  worm-balls 
may  expel  these  parasites  and  remove  the  irritation  of 
the  intestinal  canal.  If  it  proceeds  from  irritability  of 
the  air-passages,  which  will  be  discovered  by  the  horse 
coughing  after  drinking,  or  when  he  first  goes  out  of 
the  stable  in  the  morning,  or  by  his  occasionally  snort- 
ing out  thick  njucus  from  the  nose,  medicines  may  be 
given,  and  sometimes  with  advantage,  to  diminish  irri- 
tation generally.  Small  doses  of  digitalis,  emetic  la;  (ar, 
and  nitre,  administered  every  night,  frequently  have  a 
beneficial  effect,  espt  cially  when  mixed  with  tar,  which 
seems  to  have  a  powerful  influence  in  allaying  the  irri- 
tation. 

Feeding  has  much  influence  on  this  complaint.  Too 
much  dry  meat,  and  especially  chalf,  increases  it. 

Wheii  chronic  cough  chiefly  occurs  after  eating,  the 
seat  of  the  disease  is  evidently  in  the  substance  of  the 
lungs. 

The  two  most  frequent  consequences  of  severe  chest 
afleclions  in  the  horse  are  recognised  under  the  terms 
thick  ivlnd  and  broken  loiiid.  The  breathing  is  hur- 
ried in  both,  and  the  horse  is  generally  much  distressed 
when  put  upon  his  speed  ;  but  it  is  simply  quick  bieath- 
ing  in  the  first,  witli  a  peculiar  sound  like  half-rooiing 
—  the  inspirations  and  expirations  being  rapid,  forcible, 
but  equal. 

I^roken-wind  is  preceded  or  accompanied  by  couixh  — 
shoit — seemingly  cut  short — gruiiliiig,  and  followt-d  by 
wheeziMg.  ]5ioken-wind  is  usually  preceded  by  cough  ; 
the  cough  becomes  chronic,  leads  on  to  thick-wind,  and 
then  there  is  but  a  step  to  broken-wind. 

Is  there  any  cure  for  broken-wind  ?  None  !  ]No  me- 
dical skill  caiL  repair  the  broken-down  structure  of  the 
lungs. 

If,  however,  we  cannot  cure,  we  may  in  some  degree 
palliate  broken-wind  ;  and,  first  of  all,  we  must  attend 


HORSE    DOCTOR.  17 

♦ 

carefully  to  the  feedins:.  The  food  should  lie  in  little 
compass— pleuty  of  oats  and  little  hay,  but  no  chaff. 
Gieen  meat  will  always  be  serviceable.  Carrots  are 
particularly  useful. 

Next  in  importance  stands  exercise. 

"^rhe  wheezer  utters  a  sound  not  unlike  that  of  an 
asthmatic  person  when  a  little  hurried.  This  is  a  kind 
of  th'ck  wind,  and  is  caused  by  the  lodgment  of  sotne 
mucus  fluid  in  the  small  passasfes  of  the  lungs.  It  fre- 
quently accompanies  bronchitis.  Wheezing  can  be 
heard  at  all  times,  even  when  the  horse  is  at  rest  in  the 
stable  ;  roaring"  is  confined  to  the  increased  breathing  of 
considerable  exertion.  ^ 

PHTHISIS    PULMONALIS,  OR    CONSUMPTION. 

What  is  the  medical  treatment  of  confirmed  phthisis, 
or  consumption  ?  The  practitioner  must  be  guidetl  by 
circumstances.  If  the  horse  is  not  very  bad,  and  it  is 
the  spring  of  the  year,  a  run  at  grass  may  be  tried. 

The  medical  treatment,  if  any  is  tried,  will  depend  on 
two  simple  and  unerring  o^uides,  the  pulse  and  the  mem- 
brane of  the  nose.  If  the  first  is  quick  and  hard,  and 
the  second  streaked  with  red,  venesection  should  be  re- 
sorted to.  Small  bleed itigs  of  one  or  two  quarts,  omit- 
ted when  the  pulse  is  quieted  and  the  nostril  is  pale, 
may  be  eflfected.  Counter-irritants  will  rarely  do  harm. 
They  should  be  applied  in  the  form  of  blisters,  extend- 
ing over  the  sides. 

Sedative  medicines  should  be  perseveringly  admin- 
istered. 

Nitre  may  be  added  as  a  diuretic,  and  pidvts  antimo- 
nialis  as  a  diaphoretic. 

A,  BOTS. 

The  bots  cannot,  while  they  inhabit  the  sto.nach  of 
the  horse,  give  the  animal  any  pain,  for  they  have  fas- 
tened on  the  cuticular  and  insensible  coat.     They  can- 


18  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

not  be  removed  by  medicine,  because  they  are  not  in 
that  part  of  the  stomach  to  which  medicine  is  usually 
conveyed  ;  and,  last  of  ail,  in  due  course  of  time,  they 
detach  themselves,  and  come  away. 

SPASMODIC    COLTC. 

The  attack  of  colic  is  usually  very  sudden.  The 
horse  bes^ins  to  shift  his  posture,  look  round  at  his  flanks, 
paw  violently,  strike  his  belly  with  his  feet,  and  crouch 
in  a  peculiar  manner,  advancing  his  hind  limbs  under 
him  ;  he  will  then  suddenly  lie,  or  rather  fall  down,  and 
baljyace  himself  upon  his  back,  with  his  feet  resting  on 
his  Belly.  In  the  space  of  an  hour  or  two,  either  the 
spasms  begin  to  relax,  and  the  remissions  are  of  longer 
duration,  or  the  torture  is  augmented  at  every  paroxysm  ; 
the  intervals  of  ease  are  fewer  and  less  marked,  and  in- 
flammation and  death  supervene. 

Among  the  causes  of  colic  are,  the  drinking  of  cold 
water  when  the  horse  is  heated. 

Remedy. — Turpentine  is  one  of  the  most  powerful 
remedies^,  especially  in  union  with  opium,  and  in*  good 
warm  ale. 

If  relief  is  not  obtained  in  half  an  hour,  it  will  be  pru- 
dent to  bleed,  for  the  continuance  of  violent  spasm  may 
produce  inflammation. 

The  belly  should  be  well  rubbed  with  a  brush  or  warm 
cloth.  The  horse  should  be  walked  about,  or  trotted 
moderately. 

Clysters  of  warm  water,  or  containing  a  sohrion  of 
aloes,  should  be  injected. 

HERNIA,  OR  RUPTURE. 

A  portion  of  the  intestine  protrudes  out  of  the  cavity 
of  the  belly,  either  through  some  natural  or  ailificial 
opening.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  returned,  but,  from 
the  impossibility  of  applying  a  truss  or  bandage,  it  soon 
escapes  again.     At  other  times,  the  opening  is  so  nar- 


HORSE   DOCTOR.  19 

row,  that  the  gut,  gradually  distended  by  faeces,  or  thick- 
ened by  inflammation,  cannot  be  returned,  and  strangu- 
lated  hernia  is  then  said  to  exist. 

The  assii>tance  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  is  here  indis- 
pensable. 


It  is  the  introduction  of  bile  into  the  general  circular 
tion. 

The  yellowness  of  the  eyes  and  mouth,  and  of  the 
skin  where  it  is  not  covered  with  hair,  mark  it  suffi- 
ciently plainly.  The  offal  is  small  and  hard  ;  the'urine 
highly  colored  ;  the  horse  languid,  and  the  appetite  im- 
paired. 

The  principal  causes  are  over-feeding  or  over-exertion 
in  sultry  weather,  or  too  little  work  generally  speaking, 
or  inflammation  or  other  diseases  of  the  liver  itself 

Bleeding  should  always  be  resorted  to,  regulated  ac- 
cording to  the  apparent  degree  of  inflammation  of  the 
bowels  and  lungs,  and  the  occasional  stupor  of  the  ani- 
mal. Plenty  of  water  slightly  warmed,  or  thin  gruel, 
should  be  given.  The  horse  should  be  warm'ly  clothed, 
and  the  stable  well  ventilated,  but  not  cold.  Carrot* 
or  green  meat  will  be  very  beneficial. 


BREEDING,    CASTRATION,    *C. 

It  should  be  impressed  on  the  minds  of  breeders,  thai 
peculiarity  of  form  and  constitution  are  inherited  from 
both  parents. 

The  mare  should  be  long,  in  order  to  give  room  for  the 
growth  of  the  foetus  ;  and  yet  there  should  be  compact- 
ness of  form  and  shortness  of  leg. 

As  to  the  shape  of  the  stallion  little  satisfactory  can 
be  said.  If  there  is  one  point  absolutely  essential,  it  is 
"compactness." 

From  the  time  of  covering,  to  within  a  few  days  of 


^ 


HORSE    DOCTOR. 


ibe  expected  period  of  foaling,  the  cart-mare  may  be 
kept  at  moderate  labor. 

When  nearly  half  the  time  of  pregnancy  has  elapsed, 
the  mare  should  have  a  little  bettev  food.  She  should 
be  allowed  one  or  two  feeds  of  corn  in  the  day. 

The  parturition  being  over,  the  mare  should  be 
turned  into  some  well-sheliered  pasture,  with  a  hovel  or 
shed  to  run  into  when  she  pleases. 

In  five  or  six  months,  according  to  the  growth  of  the 
foal,  it  may  be  weaned. 

There  is  no  principle  of  greater  importance  than  the 
liberal  feeding  of  the  foal  during  the  whole  of  his  growth, 
and  at  this  time  in  particular. 

CASTRATION. 

For  the  common  as^ricultural  horse  the  age  of  four  or 
five  months  will  be  the  most  proper  time,  or,  at  least  be- 
fore he  is  weaned.  Few  horses  are  lost  when  cut  at 
tbat  age.  Care,  how^ever,  should  be  taken  that  the 
weather  is  not  too  hot,  nor  the  flies  too  numerous. 

If  the  horse  is  designed  either  for  the  carriage  or  for 
lieavy  draught,  the  farmer  should  not  think  of  castrating 
him  until  he  is  at  least  twelve  months  old. 

The  manner  in  which  the  operation  is  performed  will 
be  properly  left  to  the  veterinary  surgeon. 

RINGBONE. 

Ringbone  is  a  deposit  of  bony  matter  in  one  of  the 
pasterns,  and  usually  near  the  joint.  It  rapidly  spreads, 
and  involves  not  only  the  pastern-bones,  but  the  carti- 
la«^es  of  ihe  foot,  and  spreading  around  the  pasterns  and 
cartilages,  thus  derives  its  name. 

The  pasterns  first  become  connected  together  by  bone 
instead  of  ligament,  and  thence  results  what  is  called 
an  anchlosed  or  fixed  joint.  From  this  joint  the  disease 
proceeds  to  the  cartilages  of  the  foot,  and  to  the  union 
between  the  lower  pastern,  and  the  cofTin  and  navicular 


HOUSE    DOCTOR. 


* 


bones.  The  motion  of  these  parts  likewise  is  impeded 
or  lost,  and  the  whole  of  the  foot  becomes  one  mass  of 
spongy  bone. 

SWELLED    LEGS. 

Sometimes  from  an  apparent  shiftinof  of  disease  from 
other  parts,  the  hind  legs  suddenly  swell  to  an  enor- 
mous deg^ree  from  the  hock  and  almost  from  the  stifle  to 
the  fetlock,  attended  by  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  heat, 
and  tenderness  of  the  skin,  and  sometimes  excessive  and 
very  peculiar  lameness. 

Occasionally  the  horse  is  apparently  well  at  night, 
but,  on  the  following  morning,  one  or  both  of  the  legs 
are  tremendously  swollen. 

Many  horses,  in  seemingly  perfect  heakh,  if  suffered 
to  remain  several  days  without  exercise,  will  have 
swelled  legs.  * 

Remedi/.—Vhys\c  or  diuretics,  or  both,  must  be  had 
recourse  to.  Mild  cases  will  generally  yield  to  their  in- 
duence. 

THE    VICES  AND    DISAGREEABLE    OR    DANGEROUS 
HABITS    OP  THE  HORSE. 

The  horse  has  many  excellent  qualities,  but  he  has 
likewise  defects,  and  those  occasionally  amounting  to 
vices. 

RESTIVENESS. 

At  the  head  of  all  the  vices  of  the  horse  is  restiveness, 
the  most  annoying  and  the  most  dangerous  of  alL 
Whether  it  appears  in  the  form  of  kicking,  or  rearing,  or 
plunging,  or  bolting,  or  in  any  way  that  threatens  dan- 
ger to  the  rider  or  the  horse,  it  rarely  admits  of  cure. 


TBB  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

BACKING    OR    GflBBING. 

One  kind  of  restiveness  is  backing  or  gibbing".  Sonne 
horses  have  the  habit  of  backing  at  first  starting,  and 
that  more  from  playfuhiess  than  desire  of  mischief.  A 
moderate  appHcation  of  the  whip  will  usually  be  effec 
tual.  Others,  even  after  starting,  exhibit  considerable 
obstinacy  and  viciousness.  This  is  frequently  the  ef- 
fect of  bad  breaking.  Either  the  shoulder  of  the  horse 
had  been  wrung  when  he  w*as  first  put  to  the  collar,  or 
he  had  been  foolishly  accustomed  to  be  started  iu'the 
break  up-hill,  and  therefore,  all  his  work  coming  upon 
him  at  once,  he  gradually  acquired  the  dangerous  habit. 

A  hasty  and  passionate  breaker  will  often  make  a 
really  good-tempered  young  horse  an  inveterate  gibber. 
Every  young  horse  is  at  first  shy  of  the  collar.  If  he 
is  too  quickly  forced  to  throw  his  weight  into  it,  he  will 
possibly  take  a  dislike  to  it,  that  will  occasionally  show 
itsftlf  in  the  form  of  gibbing  as  long  as  he  lives.  The 
judicious  horse-breaker  will  resort  to  no  severity,  even  if 
the  colt  should  go  out  several  times  without  even  touch- 
ing collar.  The  example  of  his  companion  will  ulti- 
mately induce  him  to  take  to  it  voluntarily  and  ejeo. 
tually. 

A  large  and  heavy  stone  should  be  put  behind  the 
wheel  before  starting,  when  the  horse  finding  it  more  ' 
difficult  to  back  than  to  go  forward,  will  gradually  for- 
get this  unpleasant  trick.  It  will  likewise  be  of  advan- 
tage, as  often  as  it  can  be  managed,  so  to  start  that  the 
horse  shall  have  to  back  up  hill.  The  difficulty  of  ac- 
complishing this  will  soon  make  him  readily  go  forward. 
A  little  coaxing  or  leading,  or  moderate  flagellation,  will 
assist  in  accomplishing  the  cure. 

When,  however,  a  horse,  thinking  he  has  had  enough 
of  work,  or  has  been  improperly  checked  or  corrected,  or 
beginning  to  feel  the  painful'  pressure  of  the  collar, 
swerves,  gibs,  and  backs,  it  is  a  more  serious  matter. 
Persuasion  should  first  be  tried  ;  and  afterwards,  reason- 


HORSE   DOCTOR.  2S 

able  coercion,  but  no  cruelty ;  for  the  brutality  which 
IS  often  exercised  in  attemptin*:^  to  compel  a  gibbing 
horse  to  llnow  himself  habitually  into  the  collar,  never 
yet  accomplished  the  purpose.  The  horse  may,  per- 
haps, be  wliipped  into  motion  ;  but  if  he  has  once  begun 
to  g'\h,  he  will  have  recourse  to  it  again  whenever  any 
circumstance  displeases  or  annoys  him,  and  the  habit 
will  be  so  rapidly  and  completely  formed,  that  he  will 
become  insensible  to  all  severity. 

It  is  useless  and  dangerous  to  contend  with  a  horse 
determined  to  back,  unless  there  is  plenty  of  room,  and 
by  tight  reining,  the  driver  can  make  him  back  in  the 
precise  direction  he  wishes,  and  especially  up  hill.  Such 
a  horse  should  be  immediately  sold,  or  turned  over  to 
some  other  work.  In  a  stage-coach  as  a  wheeler,  and 
particularly  as  the  near-wheeler;  or,  in  the  middle  of  a 
team  at  agricultural  work,  he  may  be  serviceable.  It 
will  be  useless  for  him  to  attempt  togilS  there,  for  he  will 
be  dragged  along  by  his  companions  whether  he  will  or 
not;  and,  finding  the  inutility  of  resistance,  he  will  soon 
be  induced  to  work  as  well  as  any  horse  in  the  team. 
The  reformation  will  last  while  he  is  thus  employed, 
Jbut /ike  restiveness  generally,  it  will  be  delusive  when 
the  horse  returns  to  his  former  occupation.  The  dispo- 
sition to  annoy  will  very  soon  follow  the  power  to  do  it. 
Some  instances  of  complete  reformation  may  have  oc- 
curred, but  they  are  rare. 

When  a  horse,  not  often  accustomed  to  gib,  betrays  a 
reluctance  to  work,  common  sense  and  humanity  will 
demand  that  some  consideration  should  be  taken  before 
measures  of  severity  are  resorted  to.  The  horse  may 
be  taxed  beyond  his  power.  He  soon  discovers  whether 
this  is  the  case,  and  by  refusing  to  proceed,  tells  his 
driver  that  it  is  so.  The  utmost  cruelty  will  not  induce 
many  horses  to  make  the  slightest  effort,  when  they  are 
conscious  that  their  strength  is  inadequate  to  ihe  task. 
Sometimes  the  withers  are  wrung,  and  tlie  shoulders 
sadly  galled,  and  the  pain,  whicli  is  intense  on  level 
ground,  and   with   fair  draught,  becomes  insupportable 


3t>  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

when  be  tugs  up  a  steep  acclivity.  These  things 
should  be  examined  into,  and,  if  possible,  rectified  ;  for, 
under  such  circumstances,  cruelty  may  produce  obsti- 
nacy and  vice,  but  not  willing  obedience. 

They  who  are  accustomed  to  horses  know  what  seem* 
inofly  trivial  circumstances  occasionally  produce  this 
vice.  A  horse,  whose  shoulders  are  raw,  or  have  fre- 
quently been  so,  vviil  not  start  with  a  cold  collar.  When 
the  collar  has  acquired  the  warmth  of  the  parts  on  which 
it  presses,  the  animal  will  go  Avithout  reluctance.  Some 
determined  gibbers  have  been,  reformed  by  constantly 
wearing  a  false  collar,  or  strip  of  cloth  round  the  shoul- 
ders, so  that  the  coldness  of  the  usual  collar  should  never 
be  felt ;  and  others  have  been  cured  of  gibbing  by  keep- 
ing the  collar  on  night  and  day,  for  the  animal  is  not 
able  to  lie  down  completely  at  full  length,  which  the 
tired  horse  is  always  glad  to  do.  When  a  horse  gibs, 
not  at  starting,  bifl  while  doing  his  work,  it  has  some- 
times been  useful  to  line  the  collar  with  cloth  instead  of 
leather :  the  perspiration  is  readily  absorbed,  the  sub- 
stance which  presses  on  the  shoulders  is  softer,  and  it 
may  be  far  more  accurately  eased  off  at  a  tender  place, 

BITING. 

This  is  either  the  consequence  of  natural  ferocity,  oi' 
a  habit  acquired  from  the  foolish  and  teasing  play  of 
grooms  and  stable-boys.  When  a  horse  is  tickled  and 
pinched  by  thoughtless  and  mischievous  youths,  he  vyill 
first  pretend  to  bite  his  tormentors ;  by  degrees  he  will 
proceed  farther,  and  actually  bite  them,  and  very  soon 
after  that,  he  will  be  the  first  to  challenge  to  the  eom- 
bat,  and  without  provocation,  seize  some  opportunity  to 
gripe  the  incautious  tormentor.  At  length,  as  the  love 
of  mischief  is  a  propensity  too  easily  acquired,  this  war, 
half  playful  and  half  in  earnest,  becomes  habitual  to 
him,  and  degenerates  into  absolute  viciousness. 

It  is  not  possible  to  enter  the  stall  of  some  horses  with- 
out danger.     The  animal  gives  no  warning  of  his  iuten- 


HORSE    DOCTOR.  7$ 

tron  ;  he  is  seemingly  quiet  and  harmless  :  but  if  the  in* 
cautious  by-standei-  comes  fairly  in  his  reach,  he  darts 
upon  him,  and  seldom  fails  to  do  some  miscliief.  Aslal* 
lion  addicted  to  biting  is  a  most  formidable  creature. 
He  hfts  the  intiuder^lie  shakes  him — he  attacks  him 
with  his  feet — lie  tramples  upon  him,  and  there  are 
many  instances  in  whicli  he  effects  irreparable  mischief. 
A  resolute  groom  may  escape.  When  he  has  once  got 
firm  hold  of  the  head  of  the  horse,  he  may  back  him,  or 
muzzle  him,  or  harness  him  ;  but  he  must  be  always 
on  his  guard,  or  in  a  moment  of  carelessness,  he  may  be 
seriously  injured. 

It  is  seldom  that  anything  can  be  done  in  the  way  of 
cure.  Kindness  will  aggravate  the  evil,  and  no  degree 
of  severity  will  correct  it.  "  I  have  seen,"  says  Professor 
JStewart,  '-biters  punished  until  they  trembled  in  every 
joint,  and  were  ready  to  drop,  but  have  never  in  any 
case  known  them  cured  by  this  treatment,  or  by  any. 
other.  The  lash  is  forgotten  in  an  hour,  and  the  horse. 
is  as  ready  and  determined  to  repeat  the  offence  as  be- 
fore. He  appears  unable  to  resist  the  temptation,  and 
in  its  worst  form  biting  is  a  species  of  insanity." 

Prevention,  however,  is  in  the  power  of  every  propri- 
etor of  horses.  While  he  insists  on  gentle  and  humane 
treatment  of  his  cattle,  he  should  sysfemaiicaliy  forbid 
this  horse-play.  It  is  that  which  can  never  be  consi- 
dered as  operating  as  a  reward,  and  thereby  rendering 
the  horse  tractable  ;  nor  does  it  increase  the  affection  of 
the  animal  for  his  groom,  because  he  is  annoyed  and  ir^ 
ritated  by  being  thus  incessantly  teased. 

GETTING  THE  CHEEK  OF  THE  BIT  INTO  THE  MOUTH. 

Some  horses  that  are  disposed  to  be  mischievous,  try 
to  do  this,  and  are  very  expert  at  it.  They  soon  find 
what  advantage  it  gives  them  over  their  driver,  who  by 
this  manoeuvre  loses  almost  all  command.  Harsh  treat- 
ment is  here  completely  out  of  the  question.  All  that 
can  be  done  is,  by  some  mechanical  contrivance,  to  ren- 


26  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

der  the  thing  difficult  or  impossible,  and  this  nnay  be 
nrianaged  by  fastening  a  round  piece  of  leather  on  the 
inside  of  the  cheek  of  the  bit. 

KICKING. 

This,  as  a  vice,  is  another  consequence  of  the  culpa- 
ble habit  of  grooms  and  s(able-boys  of  leasing  the  horse. 
That  which  is  at  first  an  indication  of  annoyance  at  the 
pinching  and  tickling  of  the  groom,  and  without  any 
design  to  injure,  gradually  becomes  the  expression  of 
anger,  and  the  effort  to  do  mischief  The  horse  likewise 
too  soon  recognizes  the  least  appearance  of  timidiiy,  and 
takes  advantage  of  th^  discovery.  There  is  no  cure  for 
this  vice ;  and  he  cannot  be  justified  who  keeps  a  kick- 
ing horse  in  his  sttible. 

Some  horses  acquire,  from  mere  irritability  and  fidgeti- 
ness, a  hablL  of  kicking  at  the  stall  or  the  bail,  and  par- 
ticularly at  eight.  The  neighboring  horses  are  dis- 
turbed, and  the  kicker  gets  swelled  hocks,  or  some  more 
serious  injury.  This  is  also  a  habit  very  difficult  to  cor- 
rect if  suffered  to  become  established.  Mares  are  far 
more  subject  to  it  than  horses. 

Before  the  habit  is  inveterately  established,  a  thorn 
bush  or  a  piece  of  furze  fastened  against  the  partition 
or  p'  s^,  will  sometimes  eflfect  a  cure.  When  the  horse 
finds  that  he  is  pretty  severely  pricked,  he  will  not  long 
continue  to  punish  himself  In  confirmed  cases  it  may 
be  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the  log,  but  the  legs  are 
often  not  a  little  bruised  by  it.  A  rather  long  and  heavy 
piece  of  wood  attached  to  a  chain  has  been  buckled 
above  the  hock,  so  as  to  reach  about  half-way  down  the 
leg.  When  the  horse  attempts  to  kick  violently,  his  leg 
will  receive  a  severe  blow:  this,  and  the  repetition  of  it, 
may,  after  a  time,  teach  him  to  be  quiet. 

A  much  more  serious  vice  is  kicking  in  harness.  From 
the  least  annoyancj  about  the  rump  or  quarters,  some 
horses  will  kick  at  a  most  violent  rate,  and  destroy  the 
bottom  of  the  chaise,  and  endanger  the  limbs  of  the 


HoRSE    DOCTOR.  27 

drivpr.  Those  that  are  fidgety  in  the  stable  are  most 
apt  lo  do  this.  If  the  reirjs  should  perchance  get  under 
the  tail,  the  violence  of  the  kicker  will  often  be  most 
outrageous;  and  while  the  aniirial  presses  down  his  tail 
so  tightly  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  extricate  the  reins, 
he  continues  to  plunge  until  he  has  demolished  every- 
thing behind  him. 

'^Jliis  is  a  vice  standing  foremost  in  point  of  danger, 
and  which  no  treatment  will  always  conquer.  It  will 
be  altogether  in  vain  to  try  coercion.  If  the  shafts  are 
very  strong  and  without  flaw,  or  if  they  are  plated  with 
iron  underneath,  and  a  stout  kicking-strap  resorted  to 
which  will  barely  allow  the  horse  the  proper  use  of  his 
hind  limbs  in  progression,  but  not  permit  him  to  raise 
them  sufficiently  for  the  purpose  Of  kicking,  he  may  be 
prevented  from  doing  mischief;  or  if  he  is  harnessed  to  a 
heavy  cart,  and  thus  confined,  his  efforts  to  lash  out  will 
be  restrained  :  but  it  is  frequently  a  very  unpleasant 
thing  to  Witness  tliese  attempts,  though  ineffectual,  to 
demolish  the  vehicle,  for  the  shafts  or  the  kicking-strap 
may  possibly  break,  and  extreme  danger  may  ensue.  A 
horse  that  has  once  begun  to  kick,  whatever  may  have 
been  the  original  cause  of  it,  can  never  be  depended 
upon  again,  and  he  will  be  very  unwise  who  ventures 
behind  him.  The  man,  however,  who  must  come  within 
reach  of  a  kicker,  should  come  as  close  to  him  as  pos- 
sible. The  blow^  may  thus  become  a  push,  and  seldom 
is  injurious. 

UNSTEADINESS  WHILE    BEING  MOUNTED. 

When  this  merely  amounts  to  eagerness  to  start — • 
very  unpleasant,  indeed,  at  times,  for  many  a  rider  has 
been  thrown  from  his  seat,  before  he  was  fairly  fixed  in 
it — it  may  be  remedied  by  an  active  and  good  horse- 
man. We  have  known  many  instances  in  which,  while 
the  elderly,  and  inactive,  and  fearful  man,  has  been 
making  more  than  one  ineffectual  attempt  to  vault  into 
the  saddle,  the  horse  has  been  dancing  about  to  his  an- 
noyance and  danger  j  but  the  animal  had  no  sooner 


28  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

been  transferred  to  the  iTiana<rement  of  a  younger  and. 
more  agile  rider  than  he  became  perfectly  subdued. 
Severity  will  here,  more  decidedly  than  in  any  other 
case,  do  harm.  "^Fhe  rider  should  be  fearless — he  should 
carelessly  and  confidently  approach  the  horse,  mount  at 
the  first  effort,  and  then  restrain  him  for  a  while  ;  pat- 
ting him,  and  not  suffering  him  to  proceed  until  he  be- 
comes perfectly  quiet.  Horses  of  this  kind  should  not 
be  too  highly  fed,  and  should  have  sufficient  daily  ex- 
ercise. 

When  the  difficulty  of  mounMng  arises,  not  from  eager- 
ness to  start,  but  unwillingness  to  be  ridden,  the  sooner 
that  horse  is  disposed  of  the  better.  He  may  be  con- 
quered by  a  skilful  and  determined  horseman;  but  even 
he  will  not  succeed  without  frequent  and  dangerous 
contests  that  will  mar  all  the  pleasure  of  the  ride. 

HEARING. 

This  sometimes  results  from  playfulness,  carried,  in- 
deed, to  an  unpleasant  and  dangerous  extent;  but  it  is 
oftener  a  desperate  and  occasionally  successful  effort  to 
unhorse  the  rider,  and  consequently  a  vice.  The  horse 
that  has  twice  decidedly  and  dangerously  reared,  should 
-never  be  trusted  again,  unless,  indeed,  it  was  the  fault 
of  the  rider,  who  had  been  using  a  deep  curb  and  a  sharp 
bit.  Sonie  of  the  best  horses  will  contend  against  these, 
and  then  roaring  may  be  innnediately  and  permanently 
cured  by  using  a  snaffle-bridle  alone. 

The  horse-breaker's  remedy,  that  of  pulling  the  horse 
backward  on  a  soft  piece  of  ground,  should  be  practised 
by  retkless  and  brutal  fellows  alone.  Many  horses  have 
been  injured  in  the  spine,  and  others  liave  broken  their 
necks,  by  being  thus  suddenly  pulled  over ;  while  even 
the  fellow,  who  fears  no  danq^er,  is  not  always  able  to 
extricate  hin)self  from  the  falliuL'"  horse.  If  rearing  pro- 
ceeds from  vice,  and  is  unprovoked  by  the  bruising  and 
laceration  of  the  mouth,  it  fully  }iartakes  of  the  invete- 
racy which  attends  the  other  divisions  of  restivenesa. 


HORSE    DOCTOR.  29^ 

RUNNING  AWAY. 

Some  headstrong  horses  will  occasionally  endeavor  to 
bok  wilh  tfie  best  rider.  Others  with  their  wonted 
sai^^acity  endeavor  thus  to  dislodge  the  timid  or  unskir* 
fui  one.  Some  are  hard  to  hold,  or  bolt  only  during  the 
■  excitement  of  the  chase  ;  others  will  lun  away,  prompted 
by  a  vicious  propensity  alone.  There  is  no  certain  cure 
here.  The  me' hod  which  affords  any  probability  of  suc- 
cess is,  to  ride  such  a  horse  with  a  strong  curb  and  sharp 
bit ;,  to  h#ve  him  always  firmly  in  hand  ;  and,  if  he  will 
run  away,  and  the  place  will  admit  of  it,  to  give  him 
(sparing  neither  curb,  whip,  nor  spur,)  a  great  deal  more 
ninning  than  he  likes. 

VICIOUS    TO    CLEAN. 

It  would  scarcely  be  credited  to  what  an  extent  this 
exists  in  some  horses  that  are  otherwise  perfectly  quiet. 
It  is  only  at  great  hazard  that  they  can  be  cleaned  at 
all,  The  origin  of  this  is  probably  some  maltreatment. 
There  is,  however,  a  great  difference  in  the  sensibility  of 
the  skin  in  different  horses.  Some  seem  as  if  they  could 
scarcely  be  made  to  feel  the  whip,  while  others  cannot 
bear  a  fly  to  alight  on  them  without  an  expression  of 
annoyance.  In  young  horses  the  skin  is  peculiarly  deli- 
cate. K.  they  have  been  curried  with  a  broken  comb, 
or  hardly  rubbed  with  an  uneven  brush,  the  recollection 
of  the  torture  they  have  felt,  makes  them  impatient,  and 
even  vicious,  during  every  succeeding  operation  of  the 
kind.  Many  grooms,  likewise,  seem  to  delight  in  pro- 
ducing these  exhibitions  of  uneasiness  and  vice;  al- 
though; when  they  are  carried  a  little  too  far,  and  at  the 
hazard  of  the  limbs  of  the  groom,  the  animals  that  have 
been  almost  tutored  into  these  expressions  of  irritation 
are  brutally  kicked  and  punished.  , 

'J'his,  however,  is  a  vice  that  may  be  conquered.     If 

"Ihe  horse  is  dressed   with   a   lighter  hand,  and  wisped 

rather  than  brushed,  and  the  places  where  the  skin  is 

most  sensitive  are  avoided  as  much  as  thoroufjh  clean- 


30  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

liness  will  allow,  he  will  gradually  lose  the  recollection 
offoimer  ill-treatment,  and  become  tractable  and  quieL 

VICIOUS    TO    SHOE. 

The  correction  of  this  is  more  peculiarly  the  business 
of  the  smith  ;  yet  the  master  should  diligently  concern 
himself  with  it,  for  it  is  oftener  the  consequence  of  inju- 
dicious or  bad  usage  than  of  natural  vice.  It  may  be 
expected  that  there  will  be  some  difficulty  in  shoeing  a 
horse  for  the  first  few  times.  It  is  an  oper^ion  that 
gives  him  a  little  uneasiness.  * 

The  man  to  whom  he  is  most  accustomed  should  go 
with  him  to  the  forge  \'  and  if  another  and  steady  horse 
is  shod  before  him,  he  maybe  induced  more  readily  to 
submit.  It  cannot,  be  denied  that,  after  the  habit  of  re- 
sisting this  necessary  operation  is  formed,  force  may 
sometimes  be  necessary  to  reduce  our  rebellious  servant 
to  obedience  ;  but  we  unhesitatingly  affirm  that  the  ma- 
jority of  horses  vicious  to  shoe,  are  rendered  so  by  harsh 
usage,  and  by  the  pain  of  correction  being  added  to  the 
uneasiness  of  shoeing.  It  should  be  a  rule  in  every 
forge,  that  no  smith  should  be  permitted  to  strike  a  horse, 
much  less  to  twitch  or  to  gag  him,  without  the  master- 
farrier's  order ;  and  that  a  young  horse  should  never  be 
twitched  or  struck.  There  are  few  horses  that  may  not 
be  gradually  rendered  mariageable  for  this  purpose  by 
mildness  and  firmness  in  the  operator.  They  will  spon 
understand  that  no  harm  is  meant,  and  they  will  not 
forget  their  usual  habit  of  obedience  ;  but  if  the  remem- 
brance of  corporeal  punishment  is  connected  with  shoe- 
ing, tfiey  will  always  be  fidgety,  and  occasionally  dan- 
gerous. 

This  is  a  very  serious  vice,  for  it  not  only  exposes  the 
animal  to  occasional  severe  injury  from  his  own  struggles, 
but  also  from  the  correction  of  the  irritated  smith,  whose 
life  being  in  jeopardy,  may  be  forgiven  if  he  is  some- 
times a  little  too  hard-handed.  Such  a  horse  is  very 
liable,  and  without  any  fault  of  the  smith,  to  be  pricked 
and  lamed  in  shoting ;  and  if  the  habit  should  be  coa- 


HORSE    DOCTOR. 


31 


firmed,  and  should  increase,  and  it  at  lenc^th  become5 
necessary  to  cast  him,  or  put  him  in  the  trevis,  the  owner 
may  he  assured  that  many, years  will  not  pass  ere  some 
formidable  or  fatal  accident  will  take  place.  If,  there- 
fore, mild  treatment  will  not  correct  this  vice,  the  horse 
cannot  be  ioo  soon  got  rid  of 

Horses  have  many  unpleasant  habits  in  the  stable 
and  on  the  road,  which  cannot  be  said  to  amount  to 
vice,  but  which  materially  lessen  their  value. 

SWALLOWING  WITHOUT  GRINDING. 

Some^reedy  horses  habitually  swallow  their  corn 
without  properly  orrinding  it,  and  the  power  of  digestion 
not  being  adequate  to  the  dissolving  of  the  husk,  no 
nutriment  is  extracted,  and  the  oats  are  voided  whole. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  when  horses  of  unequal 
appetite  feed  from  the  same  manger.  The  greedy  one, 
in  his  eagerness  to  get  more  than  his  share,  bolts  a  por- 
tion of  his  corn  whole.  If  the  farmer,  without  consider- 
able inconvenience,  could  contrive  that  every  horse 
shall  have  his  separate  division  of  the  manger,  the  one 
of  smaller  appetite  and  slower  feed  would  have  the  op- 
portunity of  grinding  at  his  leisure,  without  the  fear  of 
the  greater  share  being  stolen  by  his  neighbor. 

Some  horses,  however,  are  naturally  greedy  feeders, 
and  will  not,  even  when  alone,  allow  themselves  time 
to  chew^  or  grind  their  corn.  In  consequence  of  this  they 
ca#iy  but  little  flesh,  and  are  not  equal  to  severe  work. 
If  the  lack  is  supplied  with  hay  when  the  corn  is 
put  into  the  manger,  they  will  continue  to  eat  on,  and 
their  stomachs  will  become  distended  with  half-chewed 
and  indigestible  food.  In  consequence  of  this  they  will 
be  incapable  of  considerable  exertion  for  a  long  time 
after  feeding,  and,  occasionally,  dangerous  symptoms  of 
staggers  will  occur.  . 

The  remedy  is,  not  to  let  such  horses  fast  too  long. 
The  nose-bag  should  be  the  companion  of  every  consi- 
dej^able  journey.  The  food  should  likewise  be  of  such 
a  nature  that  it  cannot  be  rapidly  bolted.     Chaff  should 


« 


HORSE    DOCTOR. 


be  plentifully  mixed  with  the  corn,  and,  in  some  cases 
and  especially  in  horses  of  slow  work,  it  should  with  the 
corn,  constitute  the  whole  of  the  food;  and  then  there 
will  not  be  much  dano^er. 

'  In  every  case  of  this  kind  the  teeth  should  be  care- 
fully examined.  Some  of  them  may  be  unduly  length- 
ened, particularly  the  first  of  the  grinders:  or  they  may 
be  ragged  at  the  edges,  and  may  abrade  and  wound  the 
cheek,  [n  the  first  place  the  horse  cannot  properly  mas- 
ticate his  food  ;  in  the  latter  he  will  not;  for  these  ani- 
mals, as  too  often  happens  in  sore  throat,  wo^  rather 
starve  than  put-  themselves  to  much  pain.       W 

CRIB  BITING. 

This  is  a  very  unpleasant  habit,  and  a  considerable 
defect,  although  not  so  serious  a  one  as  some  have  re- 
pre.ented.  The  horse  lays  hold  of  the  manger  WMth  his 
teeth,  violently  extends  his  neck,  and  then,  after  some 
convulsive  action  of  the  throat,  a  slight  grunting  is  heard, 
accompanied  by  a  sucking  or  drawing  in  of  air.  It  is 
not  an  efl!brt  at  simple  belching,  arising  from  indiges- 
tion. It  isvthe  inhalation  of  air.  It  is  that  which  takes 
place  with  all  kinds  of  diet,  and  when  the  stomach  is 
empty  as  well  as  when  it  is  full. 

The  effects  of  crib-biiing  are  plain  enough.  The 
teeth  are  injured  and  worn  away,  and  that,  in  an  old 
horse,  to  a  very  serious  degree.  A  considerable  qijan- 
tity  of  corn  is  often  lost,  for  the  horse  w  ill  frequently 
erib  with  his  niouth  full  of  if,  and  the  greater  pari  will 
fall  over  the  edge  of  the  manger.  Much  saliva  escapes 
while  the  manger  is  thus  forcibly  held,  the  loss  of  which 
must  be  of  serious  detriment  in  impairing  the  digestion. 
The  crib-biting  horse  is  notoriously  more  subject  to  colic 
than  other  horses,  and  to  a  species  dillicult  of  treatment 
and  frequently  dangerous.  Although  many  a  crib-biter 
is  stout  and  strong,  and  capable  of  all  ordinarv  work, 
these  horses  do*  not  generally  carry  so  much  flesh  as 
otheis,  and  have  not  their  endurance.  On  these  ac- 
counts crib-biting  has  very  properly  been  decided  to  be 


HORSE    DOCTOR.  33 

unsoundness  We  must  not  look  to  the  state  of  the  dis- 
ease at  tlic  time  of'pui chase  .  H'he  question  is,  does  it 
exist  at  all?  A  case  was  tried  before  Lord  Tenterden, 
and  thus  decided  :  "a  horse  witli  crib-biting^  is  unsound." 

It  is  one  of  tliose  tricks  \\  liich  are  exceedin<^ly  con- 
tasrious.  Every  companion  of  a  crib-biter  in  the  same 
stables  is  likely  to  acquire  the  habit,  and  it  is  the  most 
inveterate  of  all  habits.  The  edji^e  of  the  manger  will 
in  vain  be  lined  with  iron,  or  with  sheep-skin,  or  with 
sheep-skin  covered  with  tar  or  aloes,  or  any  other  un- 
pleasant substance.  In  defiance  of  tfie  annoyance 
which  these  may  occasion,  the  horse  wiil  persist  in  the 
attack  on  his  manger.  A  strap  buckled  tightly  round 
the  neck,  by  compressing  the  wind-pipe,  is  the  best  means 
of  preventing  the  possibility  of  this  trick  ;  but  the  strap 
must  be  constantly  worn,  and  its  pressure  is  too  apt  to 
produce  a  worse  atfection,  viz:  an  irritation  in  the  wind 
pij)e,  which  terminates  in  roaring. 

Some  have  recommended  turning  out  for  five  or  six 
months;  but  this  has  never  succeeded  except  with  a 
young  horse,  and  then  rarely.  The  old  crib-biter  will 
employ  the  gate  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  edge  of  his 
manger,  and  we  have  often  seen  him  galloping  across  a 
field  for  the  mere  object  of  having  a  gnpe  at  a  rail. 
Medicine  will  be  altogether  thrown  away  in  this  case. 

The  only  remedy  is  a  muzzle,  with  bais  across  the 
bottom;  sufficiently  wide  to  enable  the  animal  to  pick 
up  his  corn  and  pull  his  hay,  but  not  to  grrasp  the  edge 
of  the  manger.  If  this  is  worn  for  a  conside'able  period, 
the  horse  may  be  tired  of  attempting  that  which  he  can- 
not accomplish,  and  for  a  while  forget  the,  habit,  but,  in 
a  majority  of  cases,  the  desire  of  crib-biting  will  return 
with  the  power  of  gratifying  it. 

,  The  causes  of  crib-biting  are  various,  and  sotne  of 
them  beyond  the  control  of  the  proprietor  of  the  horse. 
It  is  often  tlie  result  of  inntalion  ;  but  it  is  more  fre- 
quently the  consequence  of  idleness.-  The  high-led  and 
spirited  horse  must  be  in  mischief  if  he  is  not  usefully 
en  ployed.  Sometimes,  but  we  believe  not  often,  it  is 
produced  by  partial  starvation,  whether  in  a  bad  straw- 


34  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

yard,  or  from  unpalatable  food.  An  occasional  cause  of 
crib-biting  is  the  frequent  custom  of  grooms,  even  when 
the  weather  is  not  severe,  of  dressing  them  in  the  stable. 
The  horse  either  catches  at  the  edge  of  the  manger, 
or  at  that  of  the  partition  on  each  side,  if  he  has  been 
turned,  and  thus  he  forms  the  habit  of  laying  hold  of 
these  substances  on  every  occasion. 

NOT    LYING    DOWN. 

It  not  uncommonly  happens  that  a  horse  will  seldom 
or  never  lie  down  in  the  stable.  He  sometimes  continues 
in  apparent  good  health,  and  feeds  and  works  well ;  but 
generally  his  legs  swell,  or  he  becomes  fatigued  sooner 
than  another  horse.  If  it  is  impossible  to  let  him  loose 
in  the  saddle,  or  to  put  him  into  a  spare  box.  we  know 
not  wl^at  is  to  be  done.  No  means,  gentle  or  cruel,  will 
force  him  to  lie  down.  The  secret  is  that  he  is  tied  up, 
and  either  has  never  dared  to  lie  down  through  fear  of 
the  confinement  of  the  halter,  or  he  has  been  cast  in  the 
night,  and  severely  injured.  If  he  can  be  suffered  to 
range  the  stable,  or  have  a  comfortable  box,  in  which  he 
may  be  loose,  he  will  usually  lie  down  the  first  night. 
Some  few  horses,  however,  will  lie  down  in  the  stable, 
and  not  in  a  loose  box.  A  fresh,  well-made  bed  will 
generally  tempt  the  tired  horse  to  refresh  himself  with 
sleep. 

OVERREACH. 

This  unpleasant  noise,  known  also  by  the  tei-m 
"clicking,"  arises  from  the  toe  of  the  hind  foot  knocking 
against  the  shoe  of  the  fore  foot.  In  the  trot,  one  for« 
leg  and  the  opposite  hind  leg  are  first  lifted  from  the 
ground  and  moved  forward,  the  other  fore  leg  and  the 
opposite  hind  leg  remains  fixed  ;  but,  to  keep  the  centre 
of  gravity  within  the  base,  and  as  the  stride,  or  space 
pas;sed  over  by  these  legs,  is  often  greater  than  the  dis- 
tance between  the  fore  and  hind  feet,  it  is  necessary, 
that  the  fora  feet  should  be  alternately  moved  out  of  the 


HORSE    DOCTOR.  36 

wny  for  the  hind  ones  to  descend.  Then,  as  occasioo- 
allv  hapficns  witli  horses  not  perfectly  broken,  and  that 
have  not  been  taught  their  paces,  and  especially  if  they 
have  higli  iiinder  quarters  and  low  fore  ones,  if  the  fore 
feet  are  not  raised  in  time,  the  hind  feet  will  strike  thena. 
The  fore  foot  will  generally  be  caught  when  it  has  just 
begim  to  be  raised,  and  the  toe  of  the  hind  foot  will  meet 
the  middle  of  the  bottom  of  the  fore  foot.  It  is  an  un- 
pleasant noise,  and  not  altogether  free  from  danger ;  foi 
it  may  so  happen  that  a  horse,  the  action  of  whose  feet 
generally  so  much  interferes  with  each  other,  may  ad- 
vance the  hind  foot  a  little  more  rapidly,  or  raise  the  fore 
one  a  little  joore  slowly,  so  that  the  blow  may  fall  on 
the  heel  of  the  shoe,  and  loosen  or  displace  it ;  or  the 
two  shoes  may  be  locked  together,  and  the  animal  may 
be  thrown  ;  or  the  contusion  may  be  received  even 
higher,  and  on  the  tendons  of  the  leg,  and  considerable 
swelling  and  lameness  will  follow. 

If  the  animal  is  young,  the  action  of  the  horse  may 
be  materially  improved  ;  otherwise  nothing  can  be  done, 
except  to  keep  the  toe  of  the  hind  foot  as  short  and  as 
round  as  it  can  safely  be,  and  to  bevel  off  and  round  the 
toe  of  the  shoe,  like  that  which  has  been  worn  by  a 
stumbler  for  a  fortnight,  and,  perhaps,  a  little  to  lower 
the  heel  of  the  fore  foot, 

A  blow  received  on  the  head  of  the  fore  foot  in  this 
manner,  has  not  unfrequently,  and  especially  if  neglected, 
been  followed  by  quittor. 

The  heel  most  frequently  suffers  in  overreaching,  al- 
though the  pastern  is  sometimes  injured.  It  usually,  or 
almost  always,  occurs  in  fast  paces  on  deep  ground.  The 
injury  is  inflicted  by  the  edge  of  the  inner  part  of  the 
shoe.  The  remedy  is  the  cutting  away  the  edge  of  the 
shoe. 

PAWING. 

Some  hot  and  irritable  horses  are  restless  even  in  the 
stable,  and  paw  frequently  and  violently.  Their  litter 
is  destroyed,  the  floor  of  the  stable  broken  up,  the  shoes 


36  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

worn  out,  the  feet  bruised,  and  the  legs  sometinnes 
sprained.  If  this  habit  does  not  exist  to  any  great  ex- 
tent, yet  the  stable  never  looks  well.  Shackles  are  the 
only  renjedy.  with  a  chain  sufTiciently  long  to  enable  the 
horse  to  shift  his  posture,  or  move  in  his  stall;  hut  these 
must  be  taken  off  at  night,  otherwise  the  animal  will 
seldom  lie  down.  Except,  however,  the  horse  possesses 
peculiar  value,  it  will  be  better  to  dispose  of  him  at  once, 
than  to  submit  to  the  danger  and  inconvenience  that  he 
may  occasion. 

QUIDDING. 

A  horse  will  sometimes  partly  chew  his  hay,  and  suf- 
fer it  to  drop  from  his  mouth.  If  this  does  not  proceed 
from  irregular  teeth,  which  it  will  be  the  business  of  the 
veterinary  surgeon  to  rasp  down,  it  will  be  found  to  be 
connected  with  sore-throat,  and  then  the  horse  will  ex- 
hibit some  other  symptom  of  indisposition,  and  particu- 
larly the  swallowing  of  w^ater  will  be  accompanied  by  a 
peculiar  gulping  effort.  In  this  case,  the  disease  (catarrh, 
with  sore  throat,)  must  be  attacked,  and  the  quidding 
will  cease. 

ROLLING. 

This  is  a  very  pleasant  and  perfectly  safe  amusement 
for  a  horse  at  grass,  but  cannot  be  indulged  in  the  sta- 
ble without  tl)e  chance  of  his  being  dangerously  en- 
tangled with  llie  collar  rein,  and  being  cast.  Yet,  al- 
though the  horse  is  cast,  and  bruised,  and  half-strangled, 
he  will  roll  again  on  the  following  night,  and  continue 
to  do  so  as  long  as  he  lives.  The  only  remedy  is  not  a 
very  pleasant  one  to  the  horse,  nor  always  quite  safe  ; 
yet  it  must  be  had  recourse  to,  if  the  habit  of  rolling  is 
inveterate.  'The  horse,"  says  Mr.  Castley,  "should  be 
tied  with  length  enough  of  collar  to  lie  down,  but  not 
to  allow  of  his  head  resting  on  the  ground  ;  because,  in 
order  to  roll  over,  a  horse  is  obliged  to  place  his  head 
quite  down  upon  the  ground." 


HORSE    DOCTOR.  37 


SHYING 


While  this  vice  is  often  the  result  of  cowardice,  or 
playfulness,  or  want  of  work,  it  is  at  other  times  the  con- 
sequence of  a  defect  of  si^ht.  It  has  heen  remarked,  and 
we  believe  ver}^  truly,  that  shying  is  oftener  a  vice  of 
half  or  quarter-bred  horses,  than  of  those  who  have  in  - 
them  more  of  the  genuine  racing  blood. 

In  the  treatment  of  shying,  it  is  of  great  importance 
to  distinguish  between  that  which  is  the  consequence  of 
defective  sight,  and  what  results  from  fear,  or  newness 
of  objects,  or  mere  affectation  of  skittishness.  For  the 
first,  every  allowance  must  be  made,  and  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  fear  of  correction  is  not  associated  with 
the  imagined  existence  of  some  terrifying  object.  The 
severe  use  of  the  whip  and  the  spur  cannot  do  good 
here,  and  are  likely  to  aggravate  the  vice  tenfold.  A 
word  half  encouraging  and  half  scolding,  with  a  gentle 
pressure  of  the  heel,  or  a  slight  touch  of  the  spur,  will 
tell  the  horse  that  there  was  nothing  to  fear,  and  will 
give  him  confidence  in  his  rider  on  a  future  occasion.  It 
should  be  remembered,  however,  that  although  a  horse 
that  shies  from  defective  sight  may  be  taught  considera- 
ble reliance  on  his  rider,  he  can  never  have  the  cauj^e  of 
the  habit  removed.  We  may  artificially  strengthen  the 
human  sight,  but  that  of  the  horse  must  be  left  to 
itself. 

The  shying  from  skittishness  or  affectation  is  quite  a 
different  affair,  and  must  be  conquered:  but  how? 
Severity  is  altogether  out  of  place.  If  he  is  forced  into 
contact  with  the  object  by  dint  of  correction,  the  dread 
of  punishment  will  afterwards  be  associated  with  that 
object,  and,  on  the  next  occasion,  his  startings  will  be 
more  frequent  and  more  dangerous.  The  way  to  cure 
him  is  to  go  on,  turning  as  little  as  possible  out  of  the 
road,  giving  a  harsh  word  or  two,  and  a  gentle  touch 
with  the  spur,  and  then  taking  no  more  notice  of  the 
matter.     After  a  few  times,  whatever  may  have   been 


38  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

« 

the  object  which  he  chose   to  select  as  the  pretended 
cause  of  affright,  he  will  pass  it  ahinost  without  notice. 

Shying  on  coming  out  of  the  stable  is  a  liabit  that  can 
rarely  or  never  be  cured.     It  proceeds  from  the  remem- 
brance of  some  ill-usage  or  Iiuit  which  the  animal  has 
received  in  the  act  of  proceeding  from  the  stable,  such  as 
striking  his  head  against  a  low  doorway,  or  entangling 
the  harness.     Coercion   will  but  associate  greater  fear 
and  more  determined  resistance  with  the  old  recollection. 
Mr.  Castley  gives  an  interesting]^  anecdote,  which  tends 
to  prove  that  while  severity  will  be  worse  than  useless, 
even  kind  treatment  will  not  always  break  a  confirmed 
habit.     '•  I  remember  a  very  fine  grey  mare  that  had  got 
into  this  habit,  and  never  could   be  persuaded  to   go 
through  a  doorway  without  taking  an  immense  jump. 
To  avoid  this,  the  servants  used  to  back  her  in  and  out 
the  sta!)le ;  i>ut  the  mare  happening  to  meet  with  a  se- 
vere injury  of  tbe  spine,  was  no  longer  able  to  back  ;  and 
then  I  have  seen  the  poor  creature,  when  brought  to  the 
door,  endeavoring  to  balance  herself,  with  a  staggerin'g 
itiotion,  upon  her  half-paralysed  hind  extremities,  as  if 
making  preparation  and  summoning  up  resolution  for 
some  great  effort ;  and  then,  when  urged,  she   would 
plunge  beadlong  forward  with  such  violence  of  exertion, 
as  often  to  lose  her   feet,  and  tumble  down,  altogether 
most   pitiable  to  be  seen.     This  I  merely  mention,'  he 
continues,  ''as  one  proof  how  inveterate  the  habits  of 
horses  are.     They  are  evils,  let  it  always  be  remem- 
bered, more  easy  to  prevent  than  to  cure." 

When  the  cure,  however,  is  early  attempted,  it  may 
be  so  far  overcome  that  it  will  be  unattended  with  daf)ger 
or  difficulty.  The  horse  should  be  bridled  when  led  out 
or  in.  He  sl»ou!d  be  he'd  short  and  tight  by  the  bead 
that  he  may  feci  lie  has  not  liberty  to  make  a  lenj),  and 
this  of  itself  is  ofien  sullicient  to  restrain  him.  Punish- 
ment, or  a  threat  of  punishment,  will  be  highly  impro- 
per. It  is  only  timid  or  high-spirited  hor.*<es  that  acquire 
this  habit,  and  rough  nstge  invariably  increases  their 
agitation  and  terror.     Some   may  be  led  out  quite  at 


HORSE    DOCTOR.  39 

feisure  when  blindfolded  ;  others  when  they  have  the 
fcarncss  bridle  on  ;  some  will  best  take  their  own  way, 
and  a  few  may  be  ridden  through  the  doorway  that 
cannot  be  led.  By  quietness  and  kindness,  however,  the 
horse  will  be  most  easily  and  quickly  subdued. 

SLIPPING  THE    COLLAR, 

This  is  a  trick  at  which  many  horses  are  so  clever 
that  scarcely  a  night  passes  without  their  getting  loose. 
It  is  a  very  serious  habit,  for  it  enables  the  horse  some- 
times to  gorge  himself  with  food,  to  the  imminent  danger 
of  staggers;  or  it  exposes  him,  as  he  wanders  about,  to 
be  kicked  and  injured  by  other  horses,  while  his  rest- 
lessness will  often  keep  the  whole  team  awake.  If  the 
web  of  the  halter,  being  first  accurately  fitted  to  his 
neck,  is  suffered  to  slip  only  one  way,  or  a  strap  is  at- 
tached to  the  halter  and  buckled  round  the  neck,  but 
not  sufficiently  tight  to  be  of  serious  inconvenience,  thei 
power  of  slipping  the  collar  will  be  taken  away. 

TRIPPING. 

He  must  be  a  skilful  practitioner  or  a  mere  pretender 
who  promises  to  remedy  this  habit.  It  arises  from  a 
heavy  forehand,  and  the  fore  legs  beirtg  too  much  under 
horse,  no  one  can  alter  the  natural  frame  of  the  animal: 
if  it  proceeds  fiom  tenderness  of  the  foot,  grogginess,  or 
old  lameness,  these  ailments  are  seldom  cured.  Also,  if 
it  is  to  be  traced  to  habifual  carelessness  and  idleness, 
no  W'hipping  will  rouse  the  drone.  A  known  stumhler 
should  never  be  ridden,  or  driven  by  any  one  who  values 
his  safety  or  his  life.  A  tight  band  or  a  strong-bearing 
rein  are  precautions  that  should  not  be  neglected,  al- 
though they  are  generally  of  little  avail ;  for  tlie  ir)- 
vftterate  stumbler  rarely  is  able  to  save  himself,  and 
the  tijjht  rein  may  sooner  and  further  precipitate 
the  rider.  If,  after  a  trip,  the  horse  suddenly  starts  for- 
ward, and  endeavors  to  break  into  a  sharp  trot  or  canter, 


40  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

the  rider  or  driver  may  be  assured  that  others  before 
him  liave  fruitlessly  endeavored  to  remedy  the  nuisance. 
If  the  stumbler  has  (lie  foot  kept  as  short  and  the  toe 
pared  as  close  as  safety  will  permit,  and  the  shoe  is 
rounded  at  the  toe,  or  has  that  shape  given  to  it  which 
it  naturally  acquires  in  a  fortnight  from  the  peculiar  ac- 
•ion  of  such  a  horse,  the  animal  may  not  stumble  quite 
so  much. 

WEAVING. 

This  consists  in  a  motion  of  the  head,  neck,  and  body, 
from  side  to  side,  like  the  shuttle  of  a  weaver  passing 
through  the  web,  and  hence  the  name  which  is  given  to 
this  peculiar  and  incessant  and  unpleasant  action.  It 
indicates  an  impatient,  irritable  temper,  and  a  dislike  to 
the  confinement  of  the  stable.  A  horse  that  is  thus  in- 
cessantly on  the  fret  will  seldom  carry  flesh,  or  be  safe 
to  ride  or  drive.  'J'here  is  no  cure  for  it,  but  the  close 
tying-up  of  the  animal,  or  at  least  allowing  him  but  one 
loose  rein,  except  at  feeding-time. 


ON   SOUNDNESS, 

AND     THE 

PURCHASE  AND  SALE  OF  HORSES 


That  horse  is  sound  in  whom  there  is  no  disease,  and 
no  alteration  of  structure  that  impairs,  or  is  likely  to  im- 
pair his  natural  usefulness.  The  horse  is  unsound  that 
labors  under  disease,  or  has  some  alteration  of  structure 
which  does  interfere,  or  is  likely  to  interfere  with  his 
natural  usefulness. 

CORNS 

Manifestly  constitute  unsoundness.  The  portion  of  the 
foot  in  which  bad  coins  are  situated  will  not  bear  the 
ordinary  pressure  of  the  shoe  ;  and  accidental  additional 
pressure  from  the  growing  down  of  the  horn,  or  the  in- 
troduction of  dirt  or  gravel,  will  cause  serious  lameness. 
They  render  it  necessary  to  wear  a  thick  and  heavy 
shoe,  or  a  bar  shoe,  in  order  to  protect  the  weakened 
and  diseased  part;  and  they  are  very  seldom  radically 
cured.     There  may  be,  however,  and  frequently  is,  a 


42  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  actual  existence  or  clia- 
racter  of  the  corn.  A  veterinary  surj^eon  may  consider 
it  so  slight  and  insignificant  as  not  apparently  to  injure 
the  horse,  and  he  pronounces  the  animal  to  be  sound  ; 
but  he  should  be  cautious,  for  there  are  corns  of  every 
shade  and  degree,  from  the  slightest  degree  to  the  most 
serious  evil.  They  may  be  so  slight  and  manageable 
as,  though  ranging  under  the  class  of  morbid  alteration 
of  structure,  yet  not  to  diminish  the  natural  usefulness 
of  the  horse  in  any  degree.  Slight  corns  will  disappear 
on  the  horse  being  shod  with  ordinary  skill  and  care, 
even  without  any  alteration  in  the  shoe. 

COUGH. 

This  is  a  disease,  and  consequently  unsoundness. 
However  slight  may  be  its  degree,  and  of  whatever  short 
standing  it  may  be,  although  it  may  sometimes  scarcely 
seem  to  interfere  with  the  usefulness  of  the  horse,  yet  a 
change  of  stabling,  or  shght  exposure  to  wet  and  cold, 
or  the  least  over-exertion,  may,  at  other  times,  cause  it 
to  degenerate  into  many  dangerous  complaints.  A 
horse,  therefore,  should  never  be  purchased  with  a  cough 
upon  him,  without  a  special  warranty  ;  or  if — the  cough 
not  being  observed — he  is  purchased  under  a  general 
warranty,  that  warranty  is  thereby  broken.  It  is  not 
law,  that  a  horse  may  be  returned  on  breach  of  the  war- 
ranty. The  seller  is  not  bound  to  take  him  back,  unless 
'he  has  contracted  so  to  do ;  but  he  is  liable  in  damages. 

ROARING.    WHEKZING,  WHISTLING,  HIGH-RLOWING, 
AND  GRUNTING; 

BeinfT  the  result  of  alterarion  of  structure,  or  disease  in 
some  of  the  air-passages,  and  interfering  with  the  perfect 
freedom  of  breathing,  especially  when  the  horse  is  put 
on  his  speed,  without  doubt  constitute  unsoundness. 
There  are  decisions  to  the  contrary,  which  are  nov/  uni- 
versally admitted  to  be  erroneous. 

Broken- wind  is  still  more  decidedly  unsoundness. 


HORSE    DOCTOR.  43 


CRIB-BITING 

AltI)oii!:!^h  some  learned  judfi^es  have  assei  ted  thatcrib- 
bitiiig  is  simply  a  trick  or  bad  habit,  it  must  be  regarded 
as  unsoundness.  This  unnatural  sucking  in  of  the  air 
must  to  a  ceitain  degree  injure  digestion.  It  must  dis- 
pose to  colic,  and  so  interfere  with  the  strength,  and  use- 
fulness, and  health  of  the  horse.  Some  crib-biters  are 
good  goers,  but  they  probably  would  have  possessed 
more  endurance  had  they  not  acquired  this  habit;  and 
it  is  a  fi\ci  well  established,  that,  as  soon  as  a  horse  be- 
comes a  crib-biter,  he,  in  nine  case's  out  of  ten,  loses 
condition. 

CURB 

Constitutes  unsoundness  while  it  lasts,  and  perhaps 
while  the  swelling  remains,  although  the  inflammation 
may  have  subsided;  for  a  horse  that  has  once  thrown 
out  a  curb  is,  for  a  while  at  least,  very  liable  do  so  again, 
to  get  lame  in  the  same  place  on  the  slightest  extra  ex- 
ertion ;  or,  at  all  events,  he  would  there  first  fail  on  ex- 
traordinary exertion.  A  horse,  however,  is  not  returna- 
ble, although  he  should  spring  a  cutb  five  minutes  after 
the  purchase  ;  for  it  is  done  in  a  moment,  and  does  not 
necessarily  indicate  any  previous  unsoundness  or  weak- 
ness of  the  part. 


CUTTING, 


As  rendering  a  horse  liable  to  serious  injury  of  the  legs, 
and  indicating  that  he  is  either  weak,  or  has  an  awkward- 
ness of  gait  inconsistent  with  safety,  produces,  rather 
than  is,  unsoundness.  Many  horses  go  lame  for  a  con- 
siderable period  after  cutting  themselves  severely ;  and 
others  have  dropped  from  the  sudden  agony  and  en- 
dangered themselves  and  their  riders, 

ENLARGED    GLANDS. 

Simple  catarrh  will  occasionally^  and  severe  affection 


44  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

of  the  chest  will  generally  be  accompanied  by  swelling 
of  these  glands,  which  does  not  subside  for  a  considera- 
ble time  after  the  cold  or  fever  has  apparently  been 
cured.  To  slight  enlargements  of  the  glands  under  the 
jaw  much  attention  need  not  be  paid  ;  but  if  they  are 
of  considerable  size,  and  especially  if' they  are  tender, 
and  the  glands  at  the  root  of  the  ear  partake  of  the  en- 
largement, and  the  membrane  of  the  nose  is  redder  than 
it  should  be,  we  should  hesitate  in  pronouncing  that 
horse  to  be  sound.  We  must  consider  the  swelling  as  a 
symptom  of  disease. 

ENLARGED    HOCK. 

A  horse  with  enlarged  hock  is  unsound,  the  structure 
of  this  complicated  joint  being  so  materially  affected 
that,  although  the  horse  may  appear  for  a  considerable 
time  to  be  capable  of  ordinary  work,  he  will  occasion- 
ally fail  even  in  that,  and  a  few  days'  hard  work  will 
always  lame  him. 

THE    EYES. 

That  inflammation  of  the  eye  of  the  horse  ^^hich 
usually  terminates  in  blindness  of  one  or  both  eyes,  has 
the  peculiar  character  of  receding  or  disappearing  for  a 
time,  once  or  twice,  or  thrice,  before  it  fully  runs  its 
course.  The  eye,  after  an  at>r.ack  of  inllammiltion,  re- 
gains so  nearly  its  former  natural  brilliancy,  that  a  per- 
son even  well  actjuainted  with  horses  will  not  always 
recognise  the  traces  of  former  disease.  After  a  time, 
however,  the  inflammation  returns,  and  the  result  is 
inevitable.  A  horse  that  has  had  one  attack  of  this 
complaint,  is  long  afterwards  unsound,  however  perfect 
the  eye  may  seem  to  be,  because  he  cairies  about  with 
him  a  di.sease  that  will  probably  again  break  out,  and 
eventually  destroy  the  sight.  Whether,  therefore,  he 
may  he  rejected  or  not,  depends  on  the  possibility  of  prov- 
ing an  attack  of  inflammation  of  the  eye,  prior  to  the 


HORSE   DOCTOR.  45 

purchase.  Next  to  direct  evidence  of  this  are  appear- 
ances about  the  eye,  of  which  tlie  veterinary  surg-eon  at 
least  oujrht  not  to  be  ignorant.  They  consist  chieHy  of 
a  puckering  of  the  hds  towards  the  inner  corner  of  one 
or  both  eyes — a  difference  in  the  size  of  the  eyes,  although 
perhaps  only  a  shght  one,  and  not.  discovered  except  it 
be  jooked  for—  a  jilooniiness  of  the  eye — a  duhiess  of 
the  iris — a  httle  duiness  of  the  transparent  part  of  the 
eye  generally — a  nnnufe,  faint,  dusky  spot,  deep  in  the. 
eye,  and  generally  wnih  hitle  radiations  of  white  lines 
proceeding  from  it.  If  these  symptoms,  or  the  majority 
of  them,  existed  at  the  time  of  purchase,  the  animal 
had  assuredly  been  di.^eased  before,  and  wils  unsound. 
Starting  has  been  considered  as  an  equivocal  proof.  It 
is  usually  an  indication  of  defective  sight,  but  it  is  occa- 
sionally a  trick.  Connected,  however,  with  the  appear- 
ances just  described,  it  is  a  very  strong  corroborative 
proof. 

LAMENESS, 

From  whatever  cause  arising,  is  unsoundness.  How- 
ever temporary  it  may  be,  or  however  obscure,  there 
must  be  disease  which  lessens  the  utility  of  the  horse, 
and  renders  him  unsound  for  the  time. 

OSSIFICATION    OF    THE    LATERAL    CARTILAGES, 

Constitutes  unsoundness,  as  interfering  with  the  natural 
expansion  of  the  foot,  and,  in  hor.ses  of  quick  work,  al- 
most invariably  producing  lameness. 

PUMICED-FOOT. 

When  the  union  between  the  horny  and  sensible 
lamiuK,  or  little  plates  of  the  foot  is  weakened,  and  the 
coffin-bone  is  let  down,  and  presses  upon  the  sole,  and 
the  sole  yields  to  this  unnatural  weight,  and  becomes 
rourided,  and  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and 
is  bruised  and  injured,  that  hor^e  must  be  unsound,  and 


4Q  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

unsound  for  ever,  because  there  arc  no  means  by  which 
we  can  raise  the  coffin-bone  again  into  its  place. 

aUIDDING. 

If  the  mastication  of  the  food  gives  pain  to  the  animal, 
in  consequence  of  soreness  of  the  mouth  or  throat,  he 
will  drop  it  before  it  is  perfectly  chewed.  This,  as  an 
indication  of  disease,  constitutes  unsoundness.  Q,uid- 
ding  sometimes  arises  from  irregularity  in  the  teelh, 
which  wounds  the  dieek  with  their  sharp  edges ;  or  a 
protruding  tooth  renders  it  impossible  for  the  horse  to 
close  his  jaws  so  as  to  chew  his  food  thoroughly,  duid- 
ding  is  unsoundness  for  the  time  ;  but  the  unsoundness 
will  cease  when  the  teeth  are  properly  filed,  or  the  sore- 
ness or  other  cause  of  this  imperfect  chewing  removed. 


QUITTOR 

Is  manifestly  unsoundness. 

RING-BONK 

Although  when  the  bony  tumor  is  small,  and  on  one 
side  only,  there  is  little  or  no  lameness — and  there  are  a 
few  instances  in  which  a  horse  with  ring-bone  has 
worked  for  many  years  without  its  return — yet  from  the 
action  of  the  foot,  and  the  stress  upon  the  part,4he  in- 
flammation and  the  formation  of  bone  may  acquire  a 
tendency  to  spread  so  rapidly,  that  we  must  pronounce 
the  slightest  enlargement  of  the  pasterns,  or  around  the 
coronet,  to  be  a  cause  of  unsoundness. 

SANDCRACK 

Is  manifestly  unsoundness.  It  may,  however,  occur 
without  the  slightest  warning,  and  no  horse  can  be  re- 
jected on  account  of  a  sandcrack  tiiat  has  sprung  after 
purchase.     Its  usual  cause  is  too  great  brittleness  of  the 


HORSE    DOCTOR.  47 

crust,  of  (he  hoof;  but  there  is  no  infalhble  method  of 
detectiiic:  this,  or  the  deo^ree  in  which  it  must  exist  in 
order  to  constitute  unsoundness.  Wlien  the  horn  around 
the  bottom  of  the  foot  has  chipped  ofTso  mucli  that  only 
a  skilful  smitli  can  fasten  the  shoe  without  pricking  the 
horse,  or  even  when  there  is  a  tendency  in  the  horn  to 
chip  and  break  in  a  much  less  degree  than  this,  the 
horse  is  unsound,  for  tliis  brittleness  of  the  crust  is  a 
disease  of  the  part,  or  it  is  such  an  altered  structure  of 
it  as  to  interfere  rrftiterially  with  the  usefulness  of  the 
animal. 

BOG    OR    BLOOD-SPAVIN 

Is  unsoundness,  because,  althouo-h  it  may  not  be  pro- 
ductive of  lameness  at  slow  work,  the  rapid  and  power- 
ful action  of  the  hock  in  quicker  motion  will  produce 
permanent,  yet  perhaps  not  considerable  lameness,  which 
can  scarcely  ever  b*e  with  certainty  removed. 

SPLINT. 

It  depends  entirely  on  the  situation  of  the  bony  tumor 
or  the  shank-bone,  whether  it  is  to  be  considered  as  un- 
soundness. If  it  is  not  in  the  neighborhood  of  any  joint, 
so  as  to  interfere  with  its  action,  and  if  it  does  not  press 
upon  any  ligament  or  tendon,  it  may  be  no  cause  of  un- 
sounddess.  although  it  is  often  very  unsightly.  In  many 
cases  it  may  not  lessen  the  capability  and  value  of  the 
animal. 

THICKENING    OF    THE    BACK    SINEWS- 

If  the  flexor  tendons  have  been  sprained,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce considerable  thickening  of  the  cellular  substance  in 
which  their  sheatlis  are  enveloped,  they  will  long  after- 
wards, or  perhaps  always  be  liable  to  sprain,  from  causes 
by  which  they  would  otherwise  be  scarcely  affected. 
The  conlinuamce  of  any  considerable  thickness  around 


48  HORSE    DOCTOR. 

the  sheaths  of  the  tendons  indicates  previous  and  vio- 
lent sprain.  This  very  thickening  will  fetter  the  action 
of  the  tendons,  and,  after  much  quick  work,  will  occa- 
sionally renew  the  inflammation  and  the  lameness; 
therefore,  such  a  horse  cannot  be  sound. 

In  the  purchase  of  a  horse  the  buyer  usually  receives, 
embodied  in  the  receipt,  what  is  termed  a  warranty. 
It  should  be  thus  expressed  : 

"Received  of  A.  B.  two  hundred  dollars  for  a  ^rey 
mare,  wai  ranted  only  (Jve  years  old,  sound,  free  from 
vice,  and  quiet  to  ride  and  drive. 

.  "  $200.  «  C.  D.» 


DIRECTIONS    FOR   RAISING 
CATTLE,   SHEEP,   AND   SWINE. 

DISEASES  OF  HORNED  CATTLE. 

INFLAMMATION. 

Inflammation  is  the  most  frequent  diseased  condition 
to  which  neat  catile  are  subject. 

External  inllanimation  is  known  by  the  part  being 
swollen,  tender^  and  holler  than  in  its  natural  state.  In 
garget  or  downfall  of  the  udder,  which  is  an  inilarnma- 
tion  of  one  or  more  quarters  of  the  bag,  the  afTected  parts 
are  swollen,  lender,  and  hot. 

In  black-leg,  a  disease  frequent  in  young  cattle,  the 
affected  part  loses  its  sensibility,  and  becomes  dark-co- 
lored, and  is  said  to  be  mortified.  It  is  then  speedily 
separated,  or  ought  to  be  separated  from  the  living  por- 
tions around.  Mortification  is  usually  the  result  of  vzo- 
leiit  inflammation,  by  which  the  texture  o-f  the  part  is 
speedily  broken  down,  and  its  vitahty  destroyed. 

When  the  inflammation  runs  high,  or  continues  long, 
it  affects  the  whole  system,  and  brings  on  fever. 

The  sicelling  oi  the  inflamed  part  is  principally  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  increased  quantity  of  blood  passing 
through  it. 

Internal  Injlaminatinn  can  be  ascertained  only  by  the 
effect  which  it  produces  on  the  system.  Tliere  is  no  in- 
flammation of  any  important  iut,enial  part  that  is  not 
quickly  accompanied  by  fever;  and  that  fever  and  the 


8  CATTLE    DOCTOR. 

degree  of  it  are  easily  ascertained,  by  the  heat  of  the 
breath  and  the  mouth,  and  the  base  of  the  horn,  by  the 
redness  of  the  eye,  and  the  frequency  and  hardness  of 
the  pulse,  the  loss  of  appetite,  and.  often,  the  cessation 
of  rumination. 

The  symptoms  of  internal  inflammation  will  be  re- 
lated as  the  inflammation  of  each  part  comes  before  us. 

When  it  seizes  any  important  organ,  as  the  brairiy 
lungs,  bowels,  kidneys,  eyes,  udder,  or  womb,  bleeding  is 
to  be  immediately  had  recourse  to  ;  and,  after  bleeding, 
a  purging  drink  is  to  be  administered:  sometimes  it  is 
necessary  to  insert  a  seton  in  the  dew-lap. 

In  external  inflammation  from  severe  bruises,  wounds, 
and  other  accidents,  fomentation  with  warm  water, 
poultices  made  of  linseed  meal — when  they  can  be  ap- 
plied— and  purging  drink  give  much  relief.  Jf  external 
inflammation  is  considerable,  it  will  always  be  necessary 
to  bleed  the  beast. 

BLEEDING    MAY    TAKE    PLACE. 

1.  Where  animals  in  a  thriving  state  rub  themselves 
until  the  hair  comes  oflf,  and  the  spot  is  covered  with  a 
dry  scab  ;  while  at  the  same  time  the  eyes  appear  dull, 
languid,  red,  or  inflamed,  the  breath  hot,  and  the. veins 
puffed  up,  and  considerably  larger  than  usual. 

2.  In  all  kinds  of  inflammatory  diseases,  as  of  the 
brain,  lungs,  kidneys,  boweL^,  eyes,  womb,  bladder, 
and  udder,  or  in  swelling  of  the  joints. 

3.  In  the  disease  called  blain,  and  in  which  bleeding, 
not  only  general  but  local,  and  local  far  more  than  ge- 
neral, has  the  best  possible  effect,  the  tumefaction  usu- 
ally almost  immediately  subsiding,  and  the  beast 
speedily  recovering. 

4.  When  the  glands  or  kernels  between  the  jaws,  or 
those  of  the  throat,  are  enlarged,  and  especially  if  they 
are  onlv  recently  affected,  immediate  recourse  should  be 
had  to  bleeding,  for  otherwise  tlie  lungs  will  probably 
become  diseased,  and  dangerous  or  consumptive  hoose 
will  speedily  ensue. 


CATTLE    DOCTOR.  9 

5.  In  bruises,  hurts,  wounds  upon  the  head,  strains  in 
diflerent  parts,  and  all  other  accidents  that  may  occur  to 
the  animal,  and  in  which  there  is  reason  to  apprehend 
considerable  indammation,  bleeding  will  be  proper. 

6.  In  violent  catarrh  or  cold,  bleeding  is  employed  ; 
but  in  slight  cases,  a  few  fever  drinks  will  restore  the 
animal. 

7.  The  yellows,  when  attended  with  feverish  symp- 
toms, or  constipation  of  the  bowels,  require  bleeding. 

The  Fleam  is  an  instrument  in  general  use  for  oxen, 
and  the  jugular  or  neck  vein  is  that  which  is  mostly- 
opened.  Local  bleeding  is,  however,  in  many  cases  par- 
ticularly serviceable.  In  inflammation  of  the  eye,  the 
eye-vein  is  frequently  cut ;  in  foot-halt,  we  sometimes 
bleed  at  the  toe  ;  and  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  or 
the  udder,  or  even  of  the  chest,  blood  is  advantageously 
taken  from  the  milk-vein. 

The  quantity  of  blood  that  it  may  be  proper  to  take 
away  at  one  time,  must  be  regulated  by  the  size, 
strength,  and  condition  of  the  animal,  and  the  disease 
under  which  he  labors.  In  many  inflammatory  com- 
plaints too  much  can  hardly  be  taken,  provided  the 
bleeding  is  stopped  as  soon  as  the  patient  appears  likely 
to  faint,  or  to  fall  down.  A  strong  healthy  beast  will 
bear  the  loss  of  five  or  six  quarts  of  blood,  without  the 
least  injury.  Larger  cattle  that  are  attacked  with  in- 
flammatory complaints,  will  profit  by  the  abstraction  of 
a  greater  quantity  ;  seven  or  eight  quarts  may  be  taken 
away  with  decided  advantage  :  but  when  it  is  necessary 
to  repeat  the  bleeding,  the  degree  of  fever  and  the 
strength  of  the  beast  will  regulate  the  quantity.  The 
blood  should  flow  from  a  large  orifice,  for  sudden  deple- 
tion is  far  more  powerful  in  its  operation  than  when  the 
blood  is  suffered  slowly  to  trickle  down.  The  blood 
must  never  he  suffered  to  fall  upon  the  ground,  btU 
should  be  received  into  a  measure^  in  order  that  the 
quantity  taken  may  be  known.  No  absolute  quantity 
oi  blood  should  ever  be  prescribed,  but  when  extensive 
bleeding  is  demanded,  the  stream  should  flow  until  the 


* 


f 


10  CATTLE    DOCTOR. 


pulse  falters,  or  intermits,  or  the  animal  begins  to  heave 
violently,  or  threatens  to  fall.  The  beast  should  not  be 
permitted  to  drink  cold  water  immediately  after  bleed- 
ing, nor  to  graze  in  tlie  field  :  the  former  has  sometimes 
induced  troublesome  catarrh,  and  the  latter  may  cause 
the  orifice  to  open  again.  If  this  operation  is  performed 
in  tiie  summer  season,  it  will  be  most  prudent  to  fetch 
the  cattle  out  of  th.e  pasture  towards  evening,  in  order 
lliat  they  may  be  bled  ;  and,  after  that,  to  let  them 
stand  in  the  fold-yard  all  night,  and  drive  them  back  to 
the  field  on  the  following  morning. 

PHYSIC. 

The  chief  purgatives  in  use  for  neat  cattle  are  Glau- 
ber's salts,  Epsom  salts.  Baibadoes  aloes,  Linseed  oil, 
and  Sulphur.  In  obstinate  constipation  of  the  bowels, 
ten  or  fifteen  grains  of  the  farina  of  the  Croton  nut, 
freshly  prepared,  may  be  added  with  good  efi^ect  One 
pound  of  Glauber's,  or  Epsom  salts,  will  puige  a  full- 
.sized  bea^t.  Where  there  is  considerable  fever,  or  the 
attack  of  fever  is  apprehended,  there  is  no  purgative  so 
beneficial  as  the  Epsom  salts.  In  bad  cases,  twenty-four 
ounces  may  be  given  at  a  dose,  and  eight  ounces  of  sul- 
phur every  six  hours  afterwards,  until  the  full  purgative 
effect  is  produced.  Linseed  oil  is  rapidly  superseding 
the  more  expensive  and  the  more  unceirain  castor  oil: 
dose  is  from  a  pint  to  a  pint  and  a  half.  As  a  mild 
aperient,  and  in  cases  where  there  is  no  great  dej^ree  of 
fever,  and  a  violent  purge  is  not  required,  there  are  few 
better  things  than  Sulpur.  AVh^re  nothing  else  is  at 
hand,  and  the  case  is  urgent,  Common  Salt  is  no  con- 
temptible medicine:  a  pound  of  it  dissolved  in  water 
will,  produce  a  very  fair  purgative  effect,  but  it  should 
not  be  given  if  the  animal  labors  under  fever.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  cases  in  which  purgative  medicines  are 
found  useful : 

1.  A  purging  diink  is  very  j)ro|)crly  given  to  cows 
soon  after  calving,  in  order  to  prevent  the  milk  fever. 

2.  Milch  cows  in  particular,  if  feeding  on  herbage,  oi 


CATTLE    DOCTOR.  ,         11 

Other  food  agreeable  to  their  palate,  will  often  continue 
to  graze  iiniil  tliey  are  in  danger  of  suflTocation.  Thus 
the  powers  of  digestion  become  over-burdened,  and  the 
animal  appears  dull  and  heavy,  and  feverish  symptoms 
are  induced.  Purgatives  will  give  the  most  effectual 
relief  in  these  cases,  and  if  the  appetite  does  not  return 
soon  after  the  physic,  a  cordial  ball  will  be  useful  in  re- 
storing it. 

3.  Cows  that  are  turned  into  fresh  pastures  sometimes 
become  bound  in  their  body,  in  which  case  a  purging 
drink  must  be  immediately  administered,  and  repeated 
every  twelve  hours,  until  the  desired  effect  is  obtained: 
a  clyster  should  be  given,  if  the  first  drink  does  not  ope- 
rate. If  the  costiveness  is  accompanied  with  pain  and 
feverish  symptoms,  inflammation  of  the  bowels  is  to  be 
suspected,  and  must  be  treated  accordingly. 

4.  When  red-water  is  recent,  a  purging  drink  or  two 
will  often  completely  remove  it. 

5.  In  the  yellows  it  is  generally  necessary  to  give  a 
purging  drink,  and,  after  that,  cordial  tonic  drinks,  in 
order  to  invigorate  the  digestive  organs. 

6.  When  medicines  are  given  to  prevent  cows  from 
slipping  their  calves,  they  are  generally  preceded  by 
physic. 

,  7.  In  all  inflammatory  complaints,  a  purging  drink 
should  be  administered  after  the  bleeding. 

8.  If  external  inflammation,  occasioned  by  wounds, 
bruises,  and  other  causes,  runs  high,  and  aflfects  the 
whole  system,  purgative  medicines  are  absolutely  ne- 
cessary. 

SETONING. 

In  some  districts  the  hoose  in  calves  is  very  prevalent 
and  fatal :  where  this  is  the  case,  they  should  all  be 
setoned  when  they  are  getting  into  condition,  and  before 
they  are  attacked  by  the  disease. 

In  joint  evil,  I  have  frequently  inserted  a  seton  in  the 
dew-lap  with  decided  good  eflfect. 

Mode  of  insertiiif^  a  Seton. — The  seton  is  commonly 


12  CATTLK    DOCTOR. 

made  of  tow  and  horse  hair  plaited  together,  or  cord  oi 
coarse  tape  alone,  or  leather.  It  should  be  tolerably 
thick,  and  eight,  ten,  or  twelve  inches  in  length.  Be- 
fore inserting  the  seton,  it  should  be  dipped  in  oil  of  tur- 
pentine. The  seton  being  now  prepared,  an  assistant 
is  to  hold  the  animal,  while  the  seton-needle,  with  the 
cord  affixed  to  it,  is  plunged  into  the  upper  edge  of  the 
brisket  or  dew-lap,  and  brought  out  again  towards 
its  lower  edge :  the  space  between  the  two  openings 
should  be  from  four  to  eight  inches.  The  seton  is  to  be 
secured  by  fastening  a  small  piece  of  wood,  or  tying  a 
Jarge  knot  at  either  end  of  the  cord.  Matter  will  begin 
to  run  the  second  day,  and  after  that,  the  cord  should 
be  drawn  backwards  and  forwards  two  or  three  times 
every  day,  in  order  to  irritate  the  parts,  and  by  this 
means  increase  the  discharge. 

When  setoning  is  had  recourse  to  in  inflammatory 
complaints,  the  cord  should  be  dipped  in  the  following 
blistering  ointment : 

Blistering  Oijitment. — Take  yellow  basilicon,  one 
ounce  ;  catuharides,  in  powder,  three  drachms;  spirit  of 
turpentine,  two  fluid  drachms. 

The  root  of  the  common  dock  forms  a  very  good 
seton,  and  one  that  will  act  speedily  and  powerfully.; 
but  the  best  of  all,  where  a  considerable  effect  is  in- 
tended to  be  produced,  is  the  root  of  the  black  hellebore. 
This  will  very  quickly  cause  considerable  swelling  as 
well  as  discharge. 

COLD  AND   COUGH. — HOOSE. 

A  simple  cold,  attended  by  slight  cough  and  dis- 
charge from  the  nostrils,  is  easily  removed.  Warm 
housing,  a  few  mashes,  and  the  following  drink,  will 
usually  succeed  : 

RECIPE. 

Cough  and  Fever  /)n'/t/j.— Take  emetic  tartar,  ont 


'?V 


CATTLE    DOCTOR.  ft 


drachm ;  powdered  digitalis,  half  a  drachm  ;  and  nitre, 
three  drachms.  Mix,  and  give  in  a  quart  of  tolerably 
thick  gruel. 

Cough  occasionally  assumes  an  epidemic  character — 
from  sudden  changes  of  the  weather,  chiefly  and  parti- 
cularly in  the  spring  and  the  fall  of  the  year. 

Sijnipto77is  of  Epidemic  Cold  or  Catarrh^  or  Injlu- 
enza. — The  beast  is  dull  and  heavy,  with  weeping  at 
the  eyes,  and  dry  muzzle  ;  the  hair  looks  pen-feathered, 
or  staring ;  the  appetite  fails ;  the  secretion  of  milk  is 
diminished  ;  there  is  considerable  heaving  of  the  flanks ; 
the  pulse  is  from  50  to  70,  and  the  bowels  are  generally 
costive  or  sapped. 

It  \vill  be  necessary  to  commence  the  treatment  of 
this  disease  with  bleeding.  From  four  to  six  quarts  of 
blood  should  be  taken,  and  then  a  dose  of  physic  ad- 
ministered. The  following  will  be  a  good  purgative 
medicine  in  such  a  case  : 

RECIPE. 

Purging  Drink. — Take  epsom  salts,  one  pound  ;  pow- 
dered caraway-seeds,  half  an  ounce.  Dissolve  in  a 
quart  of  warm  gruel,  and  give. 

After  that  the  drink  No.  1  should  be  given  morning 
and  night,  the  drink  No.  2  being  repeated  if  the  bowels 
should  be  costive. 

It  will  be  proper  to  house  the  beast,  and  especially  at 
night ;  and  a  mash  of  scalded  bran  with  a  few  oats  in 
it,  if  there  is  no  fever,  should  be  allowed.  It  is  neces- 
sary carefully  to  watch  the  animals  that  are  laboring 
under  this  complaint ;  and,  if  the  heaving  should  con- 
tinue, or  the  muzzle  again  become  or  continue  dry,  and 
the  breath  hot,  more  blood  should  be  taken  away,  and 
the  purging  drink  repeated. 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE     LUNGS. 

When  common  catarrh   has  been  np>glected,  it  will 


14  CATTLE    DOCTOR. 

sometimes  run  on  to  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  or  the 
beast  may  be  attacked  with  this  disease  without  any  of 
the  previous  symptoms'  of  catarrh.  This  is  a  very 
serious  complaint,  and  requires  the  most  prompt  and  de- 
cisive treatment. 

The  symptoms  are  dulness,  shivering,  and  cough  that 
is  particularly  sore;  the  ears,  roots  of  the  hoi ns,  and 
legs  sometimes  cold,  but  not  invariably  so,  as  the  quan- 
tity of  cellular  membr-ane  about  the  legs  is  often  suffi- 
cient to  keep  them  warm  in  spite  of  the  nature  of  the 
complaint ;  the  breath  and  mouth  are  hot ;  the  mouth 
is  generally  open,  and  there  is  a  ropy  discharge  from 
it;  the  beast  will  often  lie  down,  and  can  scarcely  be 
induced  to  move ;  the  flanks  heave  very  laboriously, 
and  the  head  is  protruded,  showing  the  great  difficulty 
of  breathing.  The  pulse  is  not  always  much  increased 
in  number,  but  is  oppressed,  and  can  sometimes  scarcely 
be  felt. 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  caused  by  the  perspira- 
tion being  obstructed  from  sudden  and  great  changes  of 
the  weather,  especially  when  accompanied  with  wet. 
Cattle  that  are  driven  long  distances,  and  then  exposed 
to  the  cold  and  damp  of  the  night,  are  particularly  liable 
to  it. 

Sometimes  the  membrane  covering  the  lungs  and  lin- 
ing the  chsst  is  the  part  principally  attacked  ;  the  dis- 
ease is  then  termed  pleurisy,  and  is  in  this  form  often 
complicated  with  rheumatism,  but  is  more  usual  for  the 
substance  of  the  lungs  to  be  aflfected  in  common  with 
their  envelopments. 

Copious  bleeding  is  the  remedy  most  to  be  depended 
on  for  subduing  the  inflammation,  and  should  be  had 
recourse  to  as  soon  as  the  disease  is  discovered.  The 
beast  shpuld  be  put  into  a  cool  cow-house  w^ell  littered^ 
and  immediately  bled  If  the  difficulty  of  breathing 
and  other  symptoms  are  not  much  relieved  in  six  or 
eight  hours  after  the  first  bleeding,  it  should  be  repeated. 
A  third  or  fourth  bleeding  may  in  bad  cases  be  re- 
quisite. As  a  general  rule,  and  especially  in  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lungs,  and  at  the  first  bleeding,  the  blood 


CATTLE    DOCTOR.  15 

■hould  flow  until  the  pulse  begins  to  falter,  and  the  ani- 
mal seems  inclined  to  faint.  The  falterincr  of  the  pulse 
will  regulate  the  quantity  of  the  after-bleedings.  Little 
bleedings  of  two  or  three  quarts,  at  the  coinniencenient 
of  intlanimation  of  the  lungs,  can  never  be  of  service; 
from  six  to  eigbt  quarts  must  be  taken,  or  even  more, 
regulated  by  tbe  circumslances  that  have  been  men- 
tioned, and  ibe  blood  should  flow  in  a  large  full  stream. 

Aseton  should  be  set  in  the  dew-lap  immediately  after 
the  first  bleeding,  and  the  purging  drink  (No.  2,)  given. 
Four  drachms  of  nitre,  two  of  extract  of  belladonna,  and 
one  of  tartarized  antimony,  may  afterwards  be  admin- 
istered twice  a  day  in  a  drink. 

In  very  severe  cases  the  chest  has  been  fired  and 
blistered  with  advantage. 

Warm  water  and  mashes  must  be  regularly  given 
two  or  three  times  a  day. 

RHEUMATISM,    OR    JOINT-FELLON. 

The  early  symptoms  of  this  complaint  are  those  of 
common  catarrh,  with  no  great  cough,  but  more  than 
usual  fever:  by  degrees,  however,  the  animal  shows 
some  stiffness  in  moving,  and  if  the  hand  is  pressed  upon 
the  chime  or  any  part  of  the  back,  the  beast  will  shrink, 
as  if  this  gave  him  pain.  When  the  complaint  goes  no 
farther  than  this,  it  is  called  ch'uie-fellon  in  many  parts 
of  the  country  ;  but  generally,  in  two  or  three  days,  the 
animal  appears  stiflfer  in  the  joints ;  these  afterwards 
begin  to  swell,  and  are  evidently  painful,  particularly 
when  he  attempts  to  move.  Sometimes  the  stiffness 
extends  all  over  the  body,  and  to  such  a  degree  that  the 
beast  is  unable  to  rise  without  assistance. 

This  is  generally  termed  joint-fellon.  Old  cows  are 
very  subject  to  it,  and  especially  a  short  time  before 
calving. 

The  following  purging  drink  should  be  given  : 

« 

RECIPE.     • 

Sulphur    Purging    Drink. — Take    sulphur,    eight 


Id 


CATTLE    DOCTOR. 


ounces ;  ginger,  half  an  ounce.  Mix  with  a  quart  of 
warm  gruel.  This  drink  should  be  repeated  every  third 
day  if  the  bowels  appear  to  require  it. 

The  bowels  having  been  gently  opened,  a  drink  which 
may  cause  some  determination  to  the  skin,  and  in- 
crease the  insensible  perspiration,  should  be  admin- 
istered. 

RECIPE. 

Rheuinatic  Drink. — Take  nitre,  two  drachms  ;  tar- 
tarized  antimony,  one  drachm  ;  spirit  of  nitrous  ether, 
one  ounce ;  aniseed  powder,  one  ounce.  Mix  with  a 
pint  of  very  thick  gruel,  and  repeat  the  dose  morning 
and  night,  except  when  it  is  necessary  to  give  the  Sul- 
phur Purging  Drink. 

If  any  of  the  joints  should  continue  swelled  and  pain- 
ful, they  should  be  rubbed  twice  a  day,  and  for  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour  each  time,  with  a  gently  stimulating  em- 
brocation. 

RECIPE. 

Rheumatic  Embr0cati0n.~T3.ke  neat's  foot  oil,  four 
ounces;  and  camphorated  oil,  spirit  of  turpentine,  and 
laudanum,  each  one  ounce  ;  oil  of  origanum,  one  drachm. 
Mix. 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    LIVER. 

^  When  the  milch  cow  is  attacked,  there  is  a  diminu- 
tion of  the  milk,  and  it  has  a  ropy  appearance  and  salt- 
ish taste  after  being  separated  from  the  cream.  The 
animal  has  a  heavy  appearance,  the  eyes  being  dull, 
the  countenance  depressed,  with  a  stifTencd,  staggering 
gait ;  the  appetite  is  impaired,  and  the  membrane  of  the 
nostrils  and  the  skig  is  of  a  yellow  color.  Sometimes 
the  respiration  is  muoh  disturbed  ;  at  others,  it  appears 
tranquil;  but  the  pulse,  though  unusually  quickened, 
IB.  rarely  hard  or  full.     The  bowels  are  generally  consti- 


CATTLE    DOCTOR.  17 

patcd,  tlioiigh  sometimes  purging  exists.  Rumination 
IS  usually  ilisturbcd,  and  occasionally  altogether  sus- 
pended. To  these  will  occasionally  be  added  the  cha- 
racteristic symptoms  of  pain  on  pressure  on  the  edge  of 
the  short  ribs  on  the  right  side.  In  acute  inflammation 
of  the  liver,  the  most  frantic  pain  has  been  exhibited; 
but  this  is  rarely  the  case. 

Inflammation  of  the  liver  frerjuently  leaves  after  it  a 
great  deal  of"  weakness,  and  tonics  are  clearly  indicated. 
The  best  medicine  that  can  be  given  is  the  following: 

RECIPE. 

Tonic  Drink. — Take  gentian  root,  powdered,  half  an 
ounce  ;  ginger,  powdered,  one  drachm  ;  epsom  salts,  two 
ounces.  Mix  the  whole  with  a  pint  of  warm  gruel,  and 
give  it  morning  and  night. 


THE  YELLOWS,  OR    JAUNDICE.  Jf 

It  may  be  produced  by  inflammation  of  the  liver,  or 
too  great  secretion  of  the  bile,  or  stoppage  of  the  vessels 
through  which  the  bile  should  flow  into  the  bowels.  If 
its  passage  is  obstructed,  it  is  thrown  back  again  upon 
the  liver,  and  there  taken  up  by  the  absorbents,  and 
carried  into  the  circulation,  and  communicates  a  yellow 
color  to  the  blood. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  disease  there  is  considerable 
dulness  and  languor,  and  loss  of  appetite.  The  cow 
wanders  about  by  herself,  or  is  seen  standing  by  the 
side  of  the  hedge  or  the  fence  in  a  most  dejected  man- 
ner. Th*  iuantity  of  milk  is  generally  lessened  ;  the 
bowels  are  costive  ;  and  the  fore-teeth  are  sometimes 
loose. 

Should  the  pulse  be  strong  as  well  as  quick,  moderate 
bleeding  will  be  judicious,  but  not  otherwise.  The 
bowels  should  then  be  freely  opened  by  means  of  a 
purging  drink,  and  kept  open  by  half-doses  of  it  admin- 
istered as  occasion  may  require.  :- 


18  CATTLE    DOCTOR. 

While  the  tonic  drink  is  given  in  the  morning,  the 
following  may  be  given  at  night : 

RECIPE. 

Drink  for  the  Yellows. — Take  of  calomel  and  opium, 
a  scruple  each.  Mix  and  suspend  in  a  little  thick 
gruel. 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    BRAIN. 

In  the  early  period  of  it  the  beast  is  dull  and  stupid. 
He  stands  with  his  head  protruded,  or  pressed  against 
something  for  support.  He  refuses  to  eat,  ceases  to  ru- 
minate, and  is,  in  a  manner,  unconscious  of  surrounding 
objecis.  Now  and  then  he  will  stand  motionless  for  a 
long  time,  and  then  suddenly  drop ;  he  will  start  up  im- 
mediately, gaze  around  him  with  an  expression  of  wild- 
ness  and  fear,  and  then  sink  again  into  his  former 
lethargy.  All  at  once,  however,  his  eyes  will  become 
red,  and  seemingly  starting  from  their  sockets ;  the 
countenance  will  be  both  anxious  and  wild  ;  the  anim.al 
will  stagger  about,  falling  and  rising,  and  running  un- 
consciously against  everything  in  his  way :  at  othei 
times  he  will  be  conscious  enough  of  things  around  him, 
and  possessed  with  an  irrepressible  desire  to  do  mischief. 
He  will  stamp  with  his  feet,  tear  up  the  ground  with 
his  horns,  run  at  every  one  wnthin  his  reach,  and  with 
tenfold  fury  at  any  red  object  ;  bellowing  all  the  while 
most  tremendously,  and  this  he  will  continue  until 
nature  is  quite  exhausted  :  a  sudden  and  violent  tiemb- 
ling  will  tlien  come  over  him,  he  will  grind  his  teeth, 
and  the  saliva  will  pour  from  his  mouth  ;  he  will  fall, 
every  limb  will  be  convulsed,  and  he  will  presently  die. 

Causes. — It  proceeds  most  commonly  from  a  redun- 
dancy of  blood  m  the  system,  called  by  farmers  an  over- 
flowing of  the  blood  ;  and  this  is  induced  by  cattle  thriv- 
ing too  fast  when  turned  on  rich  pasture-grounds,  or 
their  being  fed  too  (piickly  in  order  to  get  them  into  con- 
dition for  show  or  sale.  It  is  sometimes  occasioned  by 
the  intense   heat  of  the  sun,  when  cattle  have   been 


CATTLE    DOCTOR.  19 

turned  into  the  fields  where  there  has  been  nothini^  to 
shade  them  from  its  influence.  It  may  be  broui^ht  on 
by  severe  contusions  on  the  head,  or  by  the  cattle  being 
harassed  and  frightened,  when  driven  along  the  road  or 
tlirough  large  towns. 

Tlie  chief  or  the  only  cure  is  bleeding.  The  neck 
vein  should  be  opened  on  each  side,  il  possible,  and  the 
blood  should  be  suffered  to  How  until  the  animal  drops. 
As  much  sliould  be  taken  as  can  be  got,  or  at  least,  the 
blood  should  How  until  the  violence  of  the  symptoms  is 
quite  abated. 

To  this  a  dose  of  physic  should  follow. 

RECIPE. 

A  Strong  Physic  Drink. — Take  epsom  or  Glauber's 
salts,  half  a  pound;  the  kernel  of  the  croton  nut,  tea 
grains:  take  off  the  shell  of  the  croton  nut,  and  weigh 
the  proper  quantity  of  the  kernel.  Rub  it  down  to  a 
fine  powder ;  gradually  mix  it  with  half  a  pint  of  thick 
gruel,  and  give  it,  and  immediately  afterwards  give  the 
salts,  dissolved  in  a  pint  and  a  half  of  thinner  gruel. 

If  the  violence  or  even  the  wandering  should  remain, 
another  bleeding  should  take  place  six  hours  afterwards, 
and  this  also  until  the  pulse  falters;  and  the  purging 
should  be  kept  up  by  half-doses  of  the  purging  drink 
above. 

STAGGERS,    OR    SWIMMING    IN    THE    HEAD. 

The  symptoms  are  heaviness  and  dulness  ;  a  constant 
disposition  to  sleep,  which  is  manifested  by  the  beast 
resting  its  head  upon  any  convenient  place;  and  he 
reels  or  staggers  when  he  attempts  to  walk. 

The  cure  must  be  attempted  by  taking  four,  five,  or 
six  quarts  of  blood  from  the  animal,  according  to  its 
size  and  strength  ;  the  purging  drink  must  then  be  ad- 
ministered, and  (No.  2)  continued  in  half-doses  every 
eight  hour.s,  until  the  full  purgative  effect  is  produced. 
If  the  animal  is  not  relieved  in  the  course  of  two  hours 


20  CATTLE    DOCTOR. 

from  the  first  bleeding,  the  operation  must  be  repealed 
the  same  extent,  unless  the  beast  should  become  faint; 
and  the  bowels  must  be  kept  in  a  loose  or  rather  purg- 
ing stale  by  No.  2.  As  soon  as  the  bowels  arc  opened, 
the  fever  drink  (No.  1.)  should  be  given  morning,  noon, 
and  night,  until  the  patient  is  well. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BOWELS,  WITH  C0STIVENES8. 

Inflammation  of  the  bowels  is  by  no  means  an  un- 
common disease  among  neat  cattle,  and  frequently 
proves  fatal  to  them  from  injudicious  treatment.  It  is  a 
complaint  easily  recognisable  on  account  of  the  peculiar 
symptoms  by  which  it  is  attended. 

The  animal  is  continually  lying  down  and  gettmg 
up  again  immediately,  and,  when  up,  he  strikes  at  his 
belly  with  the  hind  feet.  The  bowels  are  obstinately 
constipated  :  the  offal,  if  any  is  voided,  is  in  small  quan- 
tities— liard,  covered  with  mucus,  and  that  sometimes 
streaked  with  blood— and  the  urine  is  generally  voided 
with  difficulty.  The  pulse  is  quicker  than  natural,  and 
there  is  much  heaving  at  the  flanks. 

It  is  distinguished  from  colic  by  the  great  degree  of 
fever  that  evidently  attends  it,  the  muzzle  being  dry 
and  the  mouth  hot.  The  animal  becomes  speedily 
weak,  he  falls  or  throws  himself  down  suddenly,  and 
when  he  rises  he  does  it  with  difficulty,  and  he  staggers 
as  he  walks. 

The  disease  mostly  arises  from  sudden  exposure  to 
cold  ;  and  especially  when  cattle  go  into  rivers  or  ponds 
after  being  heated  and  fatigued. 

The  flrst  thing  to  be  done,  and  that  which  admits  of 
no  delay,  is  to  bleed  ;  from  six  to  eight  quarts  of  blood 
at  least  should  be  taken  away.  Immediately  after- 
wards the  purging  drink  should  be  administered,  and  its 
eflfect  promoted  by  lialf-doses  of  No.  2,  given  every  six 
hours.  If  one  day  is  t;uflered  to  pass  without  proper 
means  being  taken,  the  beast  is  irrecoverably  lost. 

If  purging  should  not  bo  accomplished  after  the  third 
dose  of  the  medicine,  a  pound  of  comujon  salt  may  be 


CATTLE    DOCTOR.  21 

g'iven.     Should  not  this  succeed,  a  pound  and  a  half  of 
castor-oil  must  be  aduiinisteied. 

Clysters,  numerous,  and  great  in  quantity,  must  be 
administered.  The  Epsom  salts  and  the  castor-oil  will 
not  do  iiarm  in  whatever  quantities  they  are  given  :  it 
will  not  be  prudent,  however,  to  repeat  the  common 
salt. 

DIARRIICEA,    OR    PURGING. 

Purging  is  produced  by  change  of  food,  from  dry  to 
green  meat,  or  from  short  to  luxuriant  pasture  ;  by  poi- 
sonous plants,  bad  water,  or  unknown  atmospheric 
agency. 

The  farmer  wmU  not  regard  an  occasional  fit  of  purg- 
ing ;  he  will  only  attack  it  if  it  is  violent,  or  if  it  con- 
tinues too  long,  by  giving  a  mild  dose  of  physic,  in 
order  to  assist  nature  in  her  elTort  to  get  rid  of  some  of 
the  evil. 

From  half  to  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  Epsom  salts 
should  be  given  with  the  usual  quantity  of  ginger.  The 
next  day  he  may  probably  administer  a  little  astringent 
medicine.  The  following  will  be  effectual,  and  not  too 
powerful : 

RECIPE. 

Astringent  Drink. — Take  prepared  chalk,  two  ounces; 
oak  bark,  powdered,  one  ounce ;  catechu,  powdered,  half 
an  ounce  :  opium,  powdered,  two  scruples;  ginger,  pow- 
dered, two  drachms.  Mix  and  give  it  in  a  quart  of 
warm  gruel. 

DYSEXTERY,  SLIMY  FLUX.  OR  SCOURING  ROT. 

It  begins  with  frequent  and  painful  efforts  to  expel 
the  offal,  which  is  thip,  slimy,  stinking,  and  olive-co- 
lored. The  animal,  as  appears  from  his  restless  state, 
suffers  much  pain,  frequently  lying  down  and  soon  ris- 
ing again.  There  is  also  a  frequent  rumbling  noise  in 
the   intestines.     At   length,    he  evidently  begins  to  get 


CATTLE    DOCTOR. 


weak,  rumination  is  imperfectly  performed,  and  the  food 

passes  from  him  half  digested. 

As  the  disease  proceeds,  (lie  dew  lap  hangs  down  and 
has  a  flabliy  appearance  ;  the  offal  runs  off  with  a  putrid 
and  offensive  .MDell,  and,  as  it  falls  upon  the  ground, 
rises  up  in  bubbles,  and  a  membranous  or  skinny-like 
substance  is  often  seen  upon  it.  The  hair  all  over  the 
body  soon  appears  pen-feathered  or  staring.  Feverish 
symptoms  also  accompany  the  complaint:  the  eyes  be- 
come dull  and  inflamed,  there  is  much  working  of  the 
flanks,  and  the  pulse  is  thick. 

Causes. — Taking  cold  at  the  time  of  calving;  long 
journeys  ;  exposure  to  sudden  vicissitudes  of  the  wea- 
ther;  and,  after  being  over-heated  in  traveling,  being 
turned  into  damp  pastures,  (fcc. 

In  all  cases  the  animals  should  be  taken  from  grass, 
and  put  into  a  large  cow-house,  or  an  open  yard,  where 
thev  can  be  sheltered  from  the  weather,  and  kept  on  dry 
food,  such  as  good  hay,  ground  oats,  barley,  and  beans. 
An  equal  proportion  of  each  of  the  three  last  articles  and 
of  linseed  cake  will  make  an  excellent  food  for  cattle  la- 
boring under  dysentery.  A  quantity  proportiotiate  to 
the  appetite  of  the  patients  should  be  given  two  or  three 
times  a  day.  or  if  they  are  much  reduced  and  their  ap- 
petite is  quite  gone,  a  thick  gruel  should  be  made  of 
these  ingredients,  and  administered  three  or  four  times 
a  day. 

/?67??tc/y.— Bleeding,  proportioned  to  the  suddenness 
and  violence  of  the  attack,  and  the  apparent  degree  of 
fever,  should  be  fust  resorted   to. 

If  the  eyes  iiic  inflamed,  with  heaving  of  the  flanks, 
and  painfid  twilchings  of  the  belly,  accompanied  by  se- 
v»Me  sliaiiiing  and  apparent  gripings  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  excrement,  the  abstraction  of  blood  is  indispen- 
sable. 

The  purgative  drink  (No.  2.)  should  precede  the  use 
of  every  oilier  medicine,  in  whatever  state  the  bowels 
may  be.  It  will  prepare  for  the  safer  use  of  astringents. 
In  almost  cverv  case   there  will   be   something  in  the 


CATTLE    DOCTOR.  23 

bowels,  which,  if  it  did  not  cause  the  disease,  contributes 
to  kf-ep  it  up. 

The  followiufr  drink  may  be  given,  and  continued 
morning  and  night  for  five  or  six  days : 

RECIPE. 

Astringent  Drink  icith  Mutton  Suet.— T dike  mutton 
suef,  one  pound;  new  milk,  two  quarts;  boil  them  to- 
gether until  the  suet  is  dissolved  ;  then  add  opium,  pow- 
dered, half  a  drachm  ;  ginger,  one  drachm,  having  pre- 
viously well  mixed  them  with  a  spoonful  or  two  of 
fluid. 

When  the  dysentery  is  stopped,  the  beast  should  very 
slowly  and  cautiously  be  permitted  to  return  to  his  for- 
mer green  food. 

In  those  cases,  and  they  are  much  too  numerous, 
which  totally  resist  the  influence  of  the  medicines  al- 
ready recommended,  other  means  should  be  tried.  The 
alum  whey  has  sometimes  succeeded,  and  is  thus  pre- 
pared : 

RECIPE. 

Alum  Whey. — Take  alum,  half  an  ounce;  milk,  two 
quarts.     Boil  them  together  for  ten  minutes,  and  strain. 

This  may  be  administered  twice  every  day. 

RED- WATER. 

The  disease  consists  of  a  discharge  of  high-colored 
urine. 

There  are  evidently  two  distinct  species  of  red- water. 

One,  but  which  occurs  most  seldom,  begins  with  de- 
cided symptoms  of  fever.  There  is  shivering,  succeeded 
by  increased  heat  of  the  body  ;  the  muzzle  dry;  work- 
ing of  the  flanks  ;  urine  of  a  red  color,  evidently  tinged 
with  blood,  and  occasimially  consisting  almost  entirely 
of  blood  J  discharged  in  sinall  quantities,  and  frequently 


91  CATTLE    DOCTOR. 

with  considerable  pain  ;  loss  of  appetite.  As  the  disease 
proceeds,  the  animal  loses  strenerth  ;  the  bowels  become 
constipated  or  very  loose ;  and  the  urine  of  a  dark  color, 
approaching  to  black. 

The  discharere  of  bloody  urine  may  either  proceed 
from  inflammation  of  the  kidneys  or  a  rupture  of  some 
of  the  blood-vessels,  and  in  either  case  blood  is  discharg- 
ed with  the  urine,  and  may  be  often  detected  in  clots; 
whilst  in  the  other  kind  of  red-water,  although  the  urine 
is  dark  in  color,  it  does  not  contain  blood.  The  former 
disease  is  more  frequent  with  bulls  and  oxen,  and  the 
latter  with  milch  cows. 

In  some  cases  where  blood  is  discharged  with  the 
urine  without  any  inflammatory  appearance,  the  exhi- 
bition of  astringents  and  stimulants,  such  as  the  follow- 
ing, have  effected  a  cure  : 

RECIPE. 

Take  oil  of  juniper,  two  to  four  drachms  ;  tincture  of 
opium,  one  ounce;  oil  of  turpentine,  one  ounce.  Mix, 
and  give  in  a  pint  of  linseed  oil,  once  or  twice  a  day. 

GARGET,  OR  THE  DOWNFALL  IN  THE  UDDER  OF  COWS. 

This  disorder  makes  its  appearance  in  one  or  more 
quarters  of  the  udder,  which  become  swollen,  hard,  hot- 
ter than  usual,  and  painful  when  pressed,  [f  the  pa- 
tient is  a  milch-cow,  the  secretion  of  milk  is  lessened, 
and  mingled  with  blood,  pus,  and  corruption. 

It  is  inflammation,  and  is  most  commonly  induced  by 
the  aniuKil  catching  cold. 

It  will  be  necessary,  as  soon  as  the  downfall  is  disco- 
Tered,  to  bring  the  animal  out  of  the  pasture,  and  take 
away  from  three  to  five  (juarts  of  blood,  according  to  hei 
size  or  strength.  If  she  is  bled  at  night,  it  will  be  pro- 
per on  the  next  morning  to  give  her  the  purging  drink 
No.  2. 

The  cow  should  be  sparingly  fed  for  a  day  or  two  on 


CATTLE    DOCTOR.  25 

maslies,  with  a  little  hay,  and  afterwards  turned  od 
rather  short  pasture. 

The  following  ointment  should  be  well  rubbed  into 
the  affected  (luarter,  immediately  after  milking,  but  it 
must  be  carefully  washed  off  again  with  warm  water 
before  the  milk  is  drawn. 

RECIPE. 

Mercurial  Garget  Ointrncnt. — Take  soft  soap,  one 
pound  ;  mercurial  ointment,  two  ounces  ;  camphor,  rub- 
bed down  with  a  little  spirit  of  wine,  one  ounce :  rub 
them  well  together. 

In  obstinate  cases  the  iodine  has  been  applied  to  the 
indurated  udder  with  great  success. 

RECIPE. 

Iodine  Ointment. — Take  hydriodate  of  potash,  one 
drachm  ;  lard,  seven  drachms :  rub  them  well  together. 

'  A  portion,  varying  from  the  size  of  a  nut  to  that  of  a 
filbert,  according  to  the  extent  and  degre3  of  the  swell- 
ing and  hardness,  should  be  well  rubbed  into  the  affected 
part  morning  and  night. 

The  bowels  must  be  kept  open  with  half-doses  of  No. 
2.  The  fever  drink,  No.  1,  will  also  be  useful,  or  od« 
more  decidedly  diuretic,  as  the  following 

RECIPE. 

Diuretic  Drink. — Take  powdered  nitre,  one  ounce; 
powdered  rosin,  two  ounces;  ginger,  two  drachms:  mix 
them  well  together  in  a  little  treacle,  and  give  them  in 
warm  gruel. 

In  extreme  cases,  slight  incisions  with  a  lancet,  where 
matter  cannot  be  detected,  will  often  be  serviceable. 
The  flow  of  blood  should  be  encouraged  by  fomentations 
with  warm  water.     The  teats  are  sometimes  cut  off  in 


jb6  cattle  doctor. 

obstinate  cases  of  ihis  kind  ;  but  that  should,  if  possible, 
be  avoided,  for  the  quarter  will  be  lost,  and  there  will  be 
a  serious  diniinution  in  the  quantify  of  milk  as  lons^  as 
the  cow  lives,  '^i'lie  teat  niay  be  cut  deeply  in  order  to 
let  out  the  matter.  Tliis  wound  will  readily  heal  again, 
and  the  quarter  will  be  as  useful  as  ever. 

The  iSore  Teats  to  which  some  cows  are  subjeri  is  a 
very  dilferent  disease,  and  often  a  very  troublesome 
one.    . 

The  following  ointment  will  generally  be  found  ef- 
fectual : 

RECIPE. 

Ointment  for  Sore  Teats, — Take  elder  ointment,  six 
ounces  ;  bee's  wax,  two  ounces.  Mix  them  together, 
and  add  an  ounce  each  of  sugar  of  lead  and  alum,  ia 
fine  powder — stir  them  w»ll  together  until  cold. 

A  little  of  this  should  be  rubbed  on  the  teats  morning 
and  night  after  milking. 

TREATMENT    OF  THE    COW  BEFORE    AND    DURING 
CALVING. 

The  cow  should  be  dried  six  or  eight  weeks  before 
calving. 

Durins^  the  early  period  of  gestation  the  animal  may, 
nnd  should  be  tolerably  well  fed,  for  she  has  to  provide 
milk  for  the  dairy  and  nourishment  for  the  foetus;  yet 
even  here  there  should  be  moderation  and  care:  but 
when  she  is  dried,  her  food  should  be  considerably  di- 
Uiinished. 

Some  cows  are  apt  to  slink  their  calves,  or  to  produce 
them  dead  before  their  time.  This  generally  happens 
about  the  middle  of  their  pregnancy.  If  about  that 
time  a  cow  is  uneasy,  feverish,  olT  her  food,  or  wander- 
ing about  in  search  of  somcthinir  for  which  she  seems 
to  have  a  longing,  or  most  greedily  and  ravenously  de- 
vouring some  particular  kind  of  food,  she  should  be  bled 


^' 


CATTLE    DOCTOR.  27 

and  pliysicked  (No  2).  If  she  is  not  quieted,  she  should 
be  bled  and  physicked  ag^ain  in  the  course  of  three  or 
four  days.  She  should  be  immediately  removed  from 
the  other  cows  ;  for  should  she  sUnk  her  calf  among 
them,  it  is  not  improbable  that  some,  or  even  all,  of  the 
others  will  do  the  same. 

AVhen  it  appears  that  labor  is  close  at  hand,  she 
should  be  driven  gently  to  the  cow-house,  and  for  a 
while  left  quite  alone.    • 

THE    MILK    FEVER,    OR    THE    DROP. 

Whenever  it  takes  place,  at  home  or  in  the  field,  it  is 
distressing  to  the  animal,  as  well  as  troublesome  to  the 
owner ;  for  the  beast  is  seldom  able  to  rise  during  seve- 
ral days. 

It  most  commonly  appears  about  the  second  or  third 
day  after  calving  ;  but  the  cow  is  occasionally  down 
within  a  few  hours  after  parturition.  It  is  first  recog- 
nized by  the  animal  refusing  her  food,  looking  dull  and 
heavy  ;  then  follows  protrusion  of  the  eye,  heaving  of 
the  Hanks,  restlessness,  and  every  symptom  of  fever.  In 
a  few  hours,  or  on  the  next  day  at  the  latest,  the  cow 
begins  to  stagger ;  is  weak  in  the  loins ;  palsy  steals 
over  the  whole  frame  ;  and  she  falls,  unable  to  rise  again. 
From  this  seeming  palsy  of  the  hinder  limbs,  and  some- 
times of  the  whole  frame,  the  disease  is  very  appropri- 
ately called  dropping  after  calving. 

The  principal  expectation  of  relief,  however,  must  be 
placed  on  the  use  of  powerful  purgatives, 

RECIPE. 

Take  Epsom  or  Glauber's  salts,  twelve  ounces ;  flour 
of  sulphur,  four  ounces  ;  powdered  ginger,  four  drachms ; 
spirit  of  nitrous  ether,  one  ounce.  To  be  dissolved  in 
warm  water. 

One-half  of  this  draught  may  be  repeated  twice  a  day 
until  the  bowels  ate  properly  opened.     In  the  severer 


8b  cattle  doctor. 

affection  it  will  be  proper  to  add  from  te  ».r  twi  ly 
drops  of  the  croton  oil  to  the  first  draught,  -arid  even  »\'0 
drachms  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  and  ten  grains  of 
cantharides  have  been  conjoined  with  advantage.  It 
is  of  importance  to  administer  the  draught  slowly  and 
carefully  ;  and  when  the  cow  is  any  way  unconscious, 
it  will  be  belter  to  give  it  by  nieans  of  Read's  syringe, 
putting  the  tube  half-way  down  the  neck,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent any  of  the  medicine  getting  into  ihe  windpipe, 
where  it  has  been  known  to  produce  fatal  inflamma- 
tion. 

It  will  be  a  very  bad  symptom  if  she  begins  to  swell, 
and  there  are  frequent  belchings  of  very  foetid  gas. 

The  following  ball  should  then  be  given,  still  contin- 
uing the  purgative  medicine  if  necessary  : 

RECIPE. 

Cordial  Drink. — Take  caraway  powder,  one  ounce; 
gentian,  powdered,  half  an  ounce ;  ginger,  powdered, 
half  an  ounce  ;  essence  of  peppermint,  twenty  drops. 

Half  the  quantity  of  the  above  ingredients  should  also 
be  given  morning  and  night  as  a  drink,  in  a  pint  of 
warm  ale,  and  the  same  quantity  of  thin  gruel. 

MURRAIN,    OR    PESTILENTIAL    FEVERi 

Symptoihs. — The  animal  is  found  with  its  head  ex- 
tended, that  its  laborious  breathing  might  be  accom- 
plished with  less  dread  of  sufTocation  ;  there  is  consider 
able  diflicuky  in  swallowing  ;  enlargement  of  the  glands 
under  the  ear,  and  frequently  swelling  of  the  whole  of 
the  head  ;  uneasiness  about  llje  head  ;  seemingly  itchi- 
ness about  the  ears  ;  dulness  ;  frequent  but  not  violent 
heaving.  To  these  succeed  staggering  and  great  de- 
bility, until  the  animal  falls,  and  is  afterwards  either 
unable  to  stand  long  at  a  time,  or  to  stand  at  all.  A 
constant  discharge  of  green  bilious  stinking  faeces  now 
appears  ;  the  breath  is  likewise  oflt^isivc ;  the  very  per- 


CATTLE    DOCTOR.  SW 

Bpiration  is  sour  and  putrid  ;  the  head  swells  rapidly ; 
tne  (oiijriie  protrudes  from  the  mouth  ;  and  the  saliva, 
at  first  stinking,  hut  afterwards  purulent,  bloody,  and 
morc^  and  more  oflensive,  Hows  from  the  mouth.  A  crack- 
ling is  heard  under  the  skin ;  tumors  appear,  and  ab- 
scesses are  formed  in  various  parts. 

The  treatment  \\  ould  be,  first,  and  the  most  impor- 
tant thing  of  all,  to  separate  the  diseased  from  the 
sound,  which  seemed  to  be  in  the  slightest  degree  af- 
fected, to  some  isolated  portion  of  the  farm  where  con- 
tact with  others  .would  be  impossible. 

The  sick  only  should  be  taken  away,  and  that  as 
speedily  as  possible. 

In  the  early  stage  of  the  disease  there  can  be  no  doubt 
of  the  propriety  of  bleeding.  The  fever,  which,  accord- 
ing to  every  account,  characterizes  the  first  attack, 
should,  if  possible,  be  subdued.  The  animal  should  be 
bled,  in  proportion  to  his  size,  condition,  and  the  degree 
of  fever :  he  should  be  bled,  in  fact,  until  the  pulse  be- 
gins tu  falter  or  he  begins  to  stagger.  The  blood  should 
be  taken  in  as  full  a  stream  as  possible,  that  the  con- 
stitution might  be  more  speedily  and  beneficially  af- 
fected. 

Then  we  should  with  great  propriety  administer  a 
brisk  purgative.  A  pound  or  twenty  ounces  of  Epsom 
salts  should  be  given  in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  thin 
gruel. 

Next,  we  should  attend  to  the  diet.  Green  succulent 
grass  would  scarcely  be  allow^ed,  because  it  would  pro- 
bably not  a  little  increase  the  purging  ;  but  mashes  of 
bran,  with  a  little  bean-meal,  carrots,  or  sweet  old  hay, 
should  be  given  in  moderate  quantities.  The  fact  stands 
loo  clearly  upon  record,  that  nineteen  animals  out  of 
twenty,  seized  witli  the  murrain,  have  died.  That  on 
which  I  should  put  most  dependence  would  be  the  fol- 
lowing : 

RECIPE. 

Drink  for  Murrain. — Take  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  half 


•# 


90  CATTLE    DOCTOR. 

an  ounce;  laudanum,  half  an  ounce;  chloride  of  lime, 
in  powder,  two  ounces  ;  prepared  chalk,  an  ounce.  Rub 
them  well  together,  and  give  them  with  a  pint  of  warm 
gruel. 

This  may  be  repeated  every  six  hours,  until  the  purg- 
ing is  considerably  abated  ;  but  should  not  be  continued 
until  it  has  quite  stopped. 

The  purging  being  abated,  we  must  look  about  for 
something  to  recall  the  appetite  and  recruit  the  strength^ 
and  I  do  not  know  anything  better  than  the  foilow- 
iog: 

RECIPE. 

Tonic  Drink  for  Murrain. — Take  Columbia  root,  two 
drachms;  canella  bark,  two  drachms;  ginger,  one 
drachm  ;  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  half  an  ounce.  Rub  them 
together  and  give  in  a  pint  of  thick  gruel. 

INFLAMMATION    CF    THE    BLADDER. 

This  disease  does  not  often  occur  in  cattle,  except 
from  eating  acrid  and  poisonous  herbs,  or  when  cows 
are  near  their  time  of  calving. 

The  course  to  be  pursued  where  the  neck  of  the  blad- 
der is  inflamed  is  sufficiently  plain —the  bladder  must 
be  emptied,  or  more  fluid  will  pour  into  it  until  it  actu- 
ally bursts.  For  some  time  before  the  fatal  termination 
of  the  complaint  in  the  rupture  of  the  bladder,  not  only 
the  constant  straining,  but  the  heaving  of  the  flanks, 
the  quickness  of  the  pulse,  the  loss  of  appetite,  the  ces- 
sation of  rumination,  and  the  shivering  fits,  will  sufl5- 
ciently  indicate  the  extent  of  the  danger.  The  better 
way  of  emptying  the  bladder  is,  if  possible,  to  relax  the 
spasms  of  its  neck.  A  very  large  bleeding  will  some- 
times accomplish  this;  but  it  must  be  a  large  one,  and 
continued  until  the  animal  is  exhausted  almost  to 
faintinn. 

To  bleeding,  physic  should  succeed,  in  oraer  to  lower 


H' 


CATTLE    DOCTOR.  SI 

the  system,  and  Jielax  the  spasm  ;  but  no  medicine  must 
be  given  that  would  in  the  shghtest  de^Tfiee  increase  the 
flow  ol  urine.  Sulphur,  or  aloes,  or  both  combined, 
would  he  indicated  here. 

Should  not  the  flow  of  urine  be  re-established,  me- 
chanical means  must  be  resorted  to. 

Inllamniation  of  the  bladder  itself  is  a  disease  more 
frequent,  and  from  tlie  same  causes,  namely,  cold  and 
acrid  herbs.  Here  the  animal  should  be  bled  and  phy- 
sicked, and  fomented  across  the  loins,  and  every  diu- 
retic medicine  carefully  avoided.  The  following  drink 
may  be  administered  with  good  effect,  after  the  bleeding 
and  purging : 

RECIPE. 

DrinJc  for  Inflammation  of  the  Bladder. — Take  an- 
timonial  powder,  two  drachms  ;  powdered  opium,  one 
scruple.  Rub  them  well  together  with  a  small  portion 
of  very  thick  gruel,  and  repeat  the  dose  morning  and 
night. 

STONE    IN    THE    URINARY    PASSAGES,    OR    BLADDER, 

Stone  in  the  bladder  may  be  suspected,  when  there 
is  much  fever,  accompanied  by  a  frequent  turning  of  the 
head,  and  earnest  gaze  on  the  flanks  f  when  the  hind 
limbs  tremble,  and  there  are  ineffectual  endeavors  to 
pass  urine,  or  it  is  evacuated  in  small  quantities,  and 
mingled  with  blood. 

The  suspicion  may  very  easily  be  reduced  to  certain- 
ly, by  examining  the  bladder  with  the  hand  introduced 
into  the  rectum,  or  last  gut. 

The  presence  of  stone  in  the  bladder  having  been 
thus  proved,  that  farmer  will  pursue  the  most  judicious 
course  who  sends  the  beast  immediately  to  the  butcher ; 
for  no  medicine  will  dissolve  it,  and  the  animal  will  lose 
condition  every  day. 


M 


3&  CATTLE    DOCTOR. 

CHOKING.  • 

If  the  rumen  is  so  distended  as  to  threaten  immedi- 
ate suffocaiion,  it  will  be  proper  to  puncture  it ;  but 
this,  if  possible,  should  be  avoided.  It  will  next  be  de 
sirable  to  ascertain  the  situation  of  the  obstruction. 
Sometimes  it  will  be  found  that  the  body  is  impacted 
at  the  back  of  the  mouth  or  beginning  of  the  oesopha- 
gus :  in  these  cases  by  using  a  balling-iron,  the  object 
can  frequently  be  removed  by  passing  up  the  hand. 

If,  however,  the  substance  is  situated  low  down  the 
tube,  it  will  be  desirable  to  force  it  onwards.  For  this 
purpose  half  a  pint  of  oil  should  be  given  to  lubricate 
the  passage  as  much  as  possible,  and  then  the  beast 
being  properly  secured,  and  a  gag  placed  in  the  mouth, 
a  flexible  tube  or  rod,  with  a  knob  at  the  end,  sliould 
be  carefully  passed  down  the  oesophagus  until  it  reaches 
the  body  :  a  steady  pressure  should  now  be  employed 
to  force  it  onwards  ;  bu)  this  should  be  done  patiently,  so 
as  not  to  injure  the  parts.  By  alternately  resting  and 
trying  again,  the  object  will  generally  be  removed. 

No  solid  food  should  be  allowed  for  several  days  af- 
terwards, as  there  is  great  danger  of  a  repetition  of  the 
choking  until  the  muscles  entirely  recover  their  tone. 
Sometimes,  after  all  attempts  of  removing  the  body  by 
the  methods  before  described  have  failed,  it  will  be  pro- 
per to  do  so  by  means  of  an  operation  which  has  been 
performed  with  success ;  and  this  consists  in  making  an 
incision  through  the  skin  into  the  oesophagus,  sufTi- 
ciently  large  to  extract  the  body.  Great  care  must  be 
exercised  so  as  not  to  injure  the  important  nerves  and 
blood-vessels  situated  near  the  part.  The  beast  should 
be  cast  for  the  operation,  and  the  wound  carefully  sewed 
up  afterwards,  and  for  several  days  the  food  should  con- 
sist principally  of  gruel. 

POISONS. 

The  plants  that  are  the   most  dangerous  are  the  dif- 


f  IT 


CATTLE    DOCTOR. 


88 


ferent  species  of  hemlock,  and  particularly  water-hem- 
lock, I  he  fox-glove,  the  dropwort,  and  some  of  the  species 
of  crows-foot.  These  plants  are  not  useful  for  any  pur- 
pose, and  it  is  to  be  lamented  that  the  farmer  is  not  able 
to  recognize  them,  and  root  them  all  up.  Young  calves 
and  iambs,  until  they  have  added  some  experience  to 
the  guidance  of  instinct,  are  occasionally  lost  in  very 
great  numbers. 

The  yew  is  a  deadly  poison,  and  many  cattle  have 
been  destroyed  by  it ;  but  they  seldom  browse  upon  it 
when  green.  The  mischief,  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases,  is  done  by  the  half-dried  clippings  of  some  formal 
hedge-row^  or  fantastic  tree.  In  this  state  cattle  are  very 
apt  to  eat  great  quantities  of  the  leaves  or  shoots. 

The  symptoms  of  empoisonment  vary  with  the  plant 
that  has  been  devoured.  In  general  the  animal  moans 
sadly,  as  if  in  dreadful  pain  ;  or  a  sudden  stupidity 
comes  upon  it — or  violent  convukions.  After  eating 
the  yew-clippings,  cattle  are  often  perfectly  delirious ; 
and  in  almost  every  case  the  belly  more  rapidly  swells 
than  it  usually  does  in  hoove. 

It  is  plain  that  there  can  be  no  case  in  which  more 
speedy  and  decisive  measures  are  needed  ;  and  yet  very 
little  can  be  done,  except  that  useful  instrument,  far  too 
little  known,  Read's  patent  pump,  is  at  hand.  The 
pipe  should  be  introduced  into  the  paunch,  so  that  the 
extricated  gas  which  causes  the  swelling,  may  escape. 
After  this  a  quantity  of  warm  water  should  be  thrown 
into  the  stomach,  sufficient  to  cause  sickness,  and  thus 
get  rid  of  a  part,  at  least,  of  the  offending  matter. 
Then,  by  introducing  the  pipe  only  a  part  of  the  way 
down  the  gullet,  a  physic-drink  may  be  gradually  intro- 
duced, which  will  thus  pass  on  to  the  fourth  stomach, 
and  cause  speedy  purging.  It  will  usually  be  advisable 
to  bleed  moderately  :  drinks  of  vinegar  and  water,  not 
exceeding  half  a  pint  of  vinegar  at  a  time,  should  be 
administered  if  it  is  suspected  that  the  poison  is  of  a 
narcotic  kind,  and  the  purging  should  be  kept  up  by  re- 
peated small  doses  of  the  aperient   medicine.     When 


34  CATTLE    DOCTOR. 

the  poison  seems  to  be  nearly  or  quite  evacuated,  a  cor- 
dial drink  will  be  beneficial  in  giving  tone  to  the 
stomach. 

TO    DRY    A    cow    OF    HER    MILK. 

The  best  time  to  dry  the  cows  is  very  early  in  the 
spring,  when  tiiey  are  eating  dry  meat.  A  good  dose 
of  physic,  followed  by  mild  astrintjent  drinks,  will  usu- 
ally settle  the  business,  especially  if  she  is  moderately 
bled  before  the  physic  is  given.  Alum  in  the  form  of 
whey,  or  dissolved  in  water,  will  be  the  most  effectual, 
as  well  as  the  safest  astringent.  Six  drachms  will  be 
the  medium  dose.  The  cow  may  be  milked  clean  when 
the  astringent  is  given,  and  then  turned  on  some  dry 
upland  pasture. 

Two  days  afterwards  she  should  be  examined,  and  if 
the  udder  is  not  overloaded,  nor  hard  nor  hot,  the  milk- 
ing may  be  discontinued  ;  but  if  the  udder  is  hard  and 
full,  and  especially  if  it  is  hot,  she  should  be  fetched 
home,  cleanly  milked,  and  another  astringent  drink 
given.  The  third  drink,  if  it  is  necessary  to  give  one, 
should  be  an  aperient  one,  and  after  that  a  Diuretic 
drink  every  second  day. 

The  milking  should  only  be  resorted  to  if  the  state 
of  the  udder  absolutely  requires  it,  for  every  act  of 
milking  is  but  encouraging  the  secretion  of  milk. 

TO  PRODUCE  BULLING   IN  THE  COW,   AND  TREATMENT 
OF     BULL-BURNT. 

Some  cows  are  backward  because  they  have  been 
previously  starved  ;  a  week  or  fortnight's  better  keeping" 
will  usually  effect  the  desired  purpose. 

THE    COW-POX. 

It  appears  under  the  form  of  pustules  or  vesicles  on 
the  teats,  which  are  easily  broken  in  milking,  and  which, 


CATTLE    DOCTOR.  96 

left  alone,  break  of  themselves,  and  discharge  a  thin,  un- 
healthy liuid.  The  pustules  are  surrounded  by  a  '^road 
circle  of  inllaniniation,  and  if  neglected,  or  rouf^hly 
handled,  occasionally  riin  into  ulcers,  very  foul,  and  dif- 
ficult to  heal. 

At  the  time  of,  or  a  little  before,  the  appearance  of  the 
pustules,  the  animal  droops,  refuses  to  feed,  ceases  to 
ruminate,  and  labors  under  considerable  fever.  The 
eyes  are  heavy  and  dull;  the  cow  moans  and  wanders 
about  by  herself,  and  iier  milk  materially  lessens,  and 
at  length  is  almost  suspended. 

It  will  rarely  be  prudent  to  bleed,  but  the  bowels 
should  be  fairly  opened,  and  the  fever  drink  (No.  I,) 
given  once  or  twice  in  the  day,  according  to  the  appa- 
rent degree  of  -fever.  The  teats  should  be  frequently 
washed  witli  warm  water,  and  the  following  lotion  ap- 
plied morning  and  night : 

RECIPE. 

Lotion  for  Cow-pox. — Take  sal  ammoniac,  a  quarter 
of  an  ounce;  white  wine  vinegar,  half  a  pint;  cam- 
phorated spirit  of  wine,  two  ounces;  Goulard's  extract, 
an  ounce.     Mix  and  keep  them  in  a  bottle  for  use. 


SHEEP    DOCTOR. 


DISEASES    OF    SHEEP. 

THE    LAMPING    SEASON. 

The  ewe  ^oes  with  lamb  for  five  months.  To  enable 
the  ewe  to  produce  her  Iamb  with  comparative  safety, 
>he  should  not  be  too  well  fed.  Toohio:h  condition  will 
dispose  to  fever ;  on  the  other  hand,  with  too  poor  keep, 
the  ewe  will  not  have  sufficient  strength  to  go  through 
the  process  safely,  nor  will  she  have  milk  enough  for 
the  lambs. 

At  night,  particularly,  they  should  be  folded  in  some 
sheltered  place. 

The  ewe,  and  especially  if  she  was  in  high  condition, 
is  occasionally  subject  to  after-pains.  Some  of  the 
country  people  call  it  heaving.  Twenty  drops  of  lauda- 
num should  be  given  in  a  little  gruel,  and  repeated 
every  second  hour  until  the  pains  abate.  It  will  always 
be  prudent  to  bleed  the  ewe,  if  she  is  not  better  soon 
after  the  second  dose  of  the  laudanum. 

Attention  should  now  be  paid  to  the  Iamb,  and  it  re- 
quires it  even  more  than  the  mother.  It  is  want  of  care 
that  causes  the  loss  of  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  dead 
Iambs.     The  principal  evil  is  exposure  to  cold. 

The  operation  of  castration  is  a  very  simple  one  io 
the  vsheep,  and  yet  is  often  attended  with  danger.  The 
younger  the  lambs  are  the  better,  provided  they  are  not 


SHEEP    DOCTOR.  37 

Tcry  weak.  From  ten  days  to  a  fortnight  seems  to  be 
the  most  proper  time,  or,  1  may  say,  as  soon  as  the  tes- 
ticles may  be  laid  hold  of. 

The  lamb  being  well  secured,  the  scrotum  or  bag-  is 
to  be  grasped  in  one  hand  high  up,  and  the  testicles 
pushed  down  as  low  as  possible  :  two  incisions  are  then 
to  be  made  across  the  bag  at  the  bottom  of  it,  and  the 
testicles  forced  out.  Draw  the  testicles  down  an  inch 
or  more  from  the  scrotum,  and  then  cut  through  the 
cord  close  to  the  scrotum  with  a  knife  that  is  not  very 
sharp. 

THE    DISEASES    CF    Y0U^G    LAMBS. 

These  are  numerous,  and  many  of  them  dangerous; 
some  belonging  exclusively  to  the  period  which  I  have 
been  describing,  and  others  often  occurring  when  the 
animals  get  a  little  older. 

COAGULATION    OF    THE    MILK. 

All  the  milk  that  is  swallowed  by  the  young  Iamb  co- 
agulates in  the  stomach,  and  if  it  accumulates  too  fast, 
the  stomach  will  become  perfectly  choked  with  it,  and 
the  lamb  will  be  destroyed. 

In  this  disease  there  is  often  apparent  purging  of  a 
light  color,  which  is  in  fact  the  whey  passing  off  while 
the  curd  accumulates  and  produces  obstinate  consti- 
pation. 

The  fust  thing  to  be  done  is  to  administer  an  alkali, 
to  dissolve  the  mass,  such  as  magnesia,  in  doses  of  half 
an  ounce  twice  a  day  ;  after  which  two  to  four  drachms 
of  Epsom  salts,  with  a  little  ginger  dissolved  in  warm 
water. 

DIARRHOEA. 

The  combined  influence  of  starvation  and  cold  pro- 
duces diarrhoea  sooner  than  anything  else.  Warmth 
and  new  cow's  milk  are  the  best  remedies. 


98  SHEEP    DOCTOR. 

COSTIVENESS. 


It  is  eilher  ihe  accompaniment  of  fever,  or  it  will  very 
speedily  lead  on  to  fever.     Bleeding  in  proportion  to  the 
degree  of  fever,  and    the  age  and  strength  ot  the  lamb,        ;^ 
should  then  be  had  recourse  to.     Next,  the  bowels  must         ^i^ 
be  opened  ;  one-fourth    of  the   Purging  Drink   (No.  2,)  ^.^jJf 
will  be  the  best  thing  that  can  be  given,  and  it  should     *™ 
be  repeated  every  sixth  hour  until  the  desired  elFect  is 
produced. 


STAGGERS. 

The  lamb  will  appear  to  be  in  perfect  health.  All 
at  once  he  will  stand  still,  heaving  violently  at  the 
flanks,  and  with  the  head  protruded  ;  or  he  will  wander 
about  with  great  uncertainty  in  his  walk  and  manner: 
he  will  ihen  all  at  once  fall  down  and  lie  struggling  upon 
his  back  until  he  is  helped  up,  or  dies.  Sometimes  he 
is  very  much  convulsed. 

Bleeding  must  be  resorted  to  immediately,  and  after- 
wards the  bowels  will  open  by  means  of  the  Purging 
drink.  To  this  some  cooling  febrifuge  medicine  should 
succeed. 

RECIPE. 

Cooling  Fever  Drink. — Take  powdered  digitalis,  one 
scruple;  emetic  tartar,  ten  grains;  nitre,  two  drachms. 
Mix  with  thick  gruel,  and  let  it  be  given  twice  every 
day. 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    BRAIN. 

'^rhe  anin^al  gallops  about  attacking  his  fellows,  at- 
tacking^ the  shepherd,  and  sonjetimes  quarrelling  with 
a  post  or  tree  ;  lie  is  laboring  under  wild  delirium,  and 
this  continues  until  he  is  absolutely  exhaustcul.  He 
then  stands  still,  or  liesdown  fur  a  while  panting  dread- 


^  SIJEEP    DOCTOR.  30 

fullv,  when  he  starts  afresh,  as  delirious   and  as  imgo- 
veinable  as  before. 

The  first  and  tlie  o^rand  remedy  is  bleedino^;  and  that 
from  the  jugular,  and  coj)iously,  and  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible. The  guide  to  the  quantity  will  be  the  dropping 
of  the  animal.  To  bleeding,  physicking  will  of  course 
succeed,  and  the  sheep  should  be  removed  into  a  less 
luxuriant  pasture. 

COLD  AND  DISCHARGE  FROM    THrJ  NOSE,  AC. 

The  symptoms  of  catarrh  are  heaviness,  watery 
eyes,  running  from  the  nose.  The  discharge  is  thick, 
and  clings  about  the  nostril,  and  obstructs  it,  and  the 
sheep  is  compelled  to  suspend  its  grazing  almost  every 
minute,  and  with  violent  efforts  blow  away  the  obstruc- 
tion.    Cough  frequently  accompanies  this  discharge. 

When  the  shepherd  perceives  this  nasal  gleet,  he 
should  keep  a  sharp  look-out  over  his  flock,  and  if  there 
is  one  that  stays  behind,  or  will  not  eat,  he  should 
catch  him,  and  remove  him  to  a  warmer  situation,  and 
bleed  him,  and  give  him  the  laxative  and  fever  drinks, 
and  nurse  him  with  mashes  and  hay. 

THE    ROT. 

Symptoms. — The  sheep  is  dull,  lags  behind  in  his 
journey  to  and  from  the  fold,  and  he  does  not  feed 
well ;  but  there  are  as  much  early  symptoms  of  the 
sta2"?ers  as  of  the  rot. 

This,  however,  goes  on  some  time,  and  then  a  palish 
yellow  hue  steals  over  the  skin,  easy  enough  to  be  seen 
when  the  wool  is  parted,  and  most  evident  in  tlie  eye- 
lids, and  that  which  is  generally  called  the  white  of  the 
eyes.  Tlie  lips  and  mouth  are  soon  tinged,  but  not  to 
so  g-reat  a  degree. 

The  tongue  especially  becomes  pale  and  lived.  The 
animal  is  feverish  ;  the  heat  of  the  mouth,  and  the  pant- 
ing, and  heaving  of  the   Hanks,  and    general  dulness, 


lib  SHEPE    DOCTOR.  ^ 

stifficiently  indicate  this.  Some  degree  of  cough  comes 
on ;  some  discharge  from  the  nose  ;  or  the  breath  begins 
to  be  exceedingly  offensive.  Considerable  swelling  ap- 
pears under  the  chin  ;  a  fcetid  purging  comes  on  of  all 
colors. 

Remedy. — Tonics  and  aromatics  are  usually  mingled 
with  common  salt ;  but  first  of  all  the  bowels  are  eva- 
cuated by  some  of  the  usual  purgatives,  and  the  Epsom 
salts  are  the  best.  The  following  prescription  should 
then  be  tried  : 

RECIPE. 

Mixture  for  the  i?o^.— Take  common  salt,  eight 
ounces;  powdered  gentian,  two  ounces;  ginger,  ooe 
ounce  ;  tincture  of  Colombo,  four  ounces.  Put  the  whole 
into  a  quart  bottle,  and  add  water  so  as  to  fill  the 
bottle. 

A  table-spoonful  of  this  mixture  should  be  given 
morning  and  night  for  a  week,  and  then  the  following 
mixture  may  be  given  at  night,  while  the  former  is  con- 
tinued in  the  morning,  and  by  which  the  flukes  will  be 
destroyed,  as  the  worms  in  the  bronchial  tubes  some- 
times are  in  the  hoose  of  young  cattle. 

RECIPE. 

Second  Mixture  for  the  Rot. — Take  of  recipe  (above), 
a  quart ;  spirit  of  turpentine,  three  ounces  :  shake  them 
well  togetlier  when  first  mixed,  and  whenever  the  me- 
dicine is  given.  Two  table-spoonfuls  are  the  usual 
dose. 

The  morning  dose  should  be  given  on  an  empty 
stomach,  and  the  evening  dose  before  the  night's  feedia 
given,  if  the  animal  is  housed. 

THE    FOOT-ROT. 

The  first  symptoms  of  the  disease  is  the  lameness  of 


.^  SHEEP    DOCTOR.  41' 

the  sheep.  The  foot  is  hot,  and  the  animal  shrinks  if 
it  is  fiinily  pressed.  It  is  particularly  liot  and  painful 
in  the  cleft  between  the  two  hoofs ;  and  there  is  gene- 
rally some  enlargement  about  the  coronet.  The  lame- 
ness rapidly  increases,  and  often  to  such  a  degree  in- 
deed, that  the  sheep  is  unable  to  stand,  but  moves  about 
tlie  field  on  its  knees.  The  soft  portions  of  the  foot, 
and  sometimes  the  very  bones  of  it,  slough  away,  and 
drop  oil". 

Treatment.— The  foot  must  be  carefully  examined, 
and  every  portion  of  horn  that  has  separated  from  the 
parts  beneath  thoroughly  removed,  and  the  sore  lightly 
touched  with  the  butyr  (chloride)  of  antimony,  applied 
by  means  of  a  small  quantity  of  tow  rolled  round  a  flat 
bit  of  stick,  and  then  dipped  into  the  caustic.  A  stronger 
and  oftentimes  a  better  application  is  made  by  dissolv- 
ing corrosive  sublimate  in  spirits  of  wine.  Hydrochloric 
acid  is  also  a  very  useful  caustic  for  foot-rot.  If  a  fun- 
gus is  sprouting  at  the  place  where  the  horn  separates 
from  the  foot,  it  must  be  first  cut  away  with  the  knife, 
and  then  the  root  of  it  touched  also  with  the  caustic ; 
or,  what  is  still  better,  it  may  be  removed  by  means  oif 
a  hot  iron. 

Remove  the  sheep  to  higher  ground. 

THE    SCAB. 

It  is  first  discovered  by  the  animal  eagerly  rubbing 
himself  against  every  post,  or  gate,  or  bank,  or,  if  the 
itching  is  very  great,  tearing  off  his  fleece  by  mouthfuls. 
There  will  appear  on  various  parts,  and  particularly 
along  the  back,  either  little  red  pustules,  or  a  harsh  dry 
scurf. 

Remedy. — The  mercurial  or  blue  ointment  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree  of  strength  is  commonly  used. 

RECIPE. 

Mercurial  Ointment  for  Scab. — Take  crude  quick' 


48"  SHEEP    DOCTOR.  K 

silver,  one   pound  ;  Venice    turpentine,    half  a  pound  ; 
spirit  of  turpentine,  two  ounces. 

These  should  be  rubbed  well  together  for  five  or  six 
hours,  until  they  are  perfectly  united.  When  this  is 
completed,  four  pounds  and  a  half  of  lard  should  be 
added,  and  the  more  rancid  it  is  the  better. 

The  ointment  should  be  gently  but  well  rubbed  in. 

A  milder  ointment  may  be  used. 

RECIPE.' 

Mild  Ointment  for  Scab. — Take  flour  of  sulphur,  a 
pound;  Venice  turpentine,  four  ounces;  rancid  lard^ 
two  pounds ;  strong  mercurial  ointment,  four  ounces. 
Rub  them  well  tosrether. 

This  ointment  may  be  used  at  any  time  of  the  year  ; 
but  the  mercurial  ointment  is  not  safe  in  cold  or  wet 
weather. 

In  very  bad  cases  the  following  powerful  ointment 
may  be  employed : 

RECIPE. 

Take  white  hellebore,  three  ounces ;  bichloride  of 
ifiercury,  two  ounces;  fish-oil,  twelve  pounds;  resin,  six 
ounces  ;  tallow,  eight  ounces.  The  two  first  ingredients 
to  be  mixed  with  a  part  of  the  oil,  and  the  other  ingre- 
dients to  be  melted  and  added. 

LICE,    TICKS,    AND    FLIES. 

Many  washes  have  been  invented  to  destroy  these 
insects,  but  few  of  them  have  perfectly  succeeded.  That 
which  seems  to  have  the  best  effect  is  thus  composed : 

RECIPE. 

Arsenical  Wash  for  Sheep  Lice.— Take  arsenic,  two 
pounds  ;  soft  soap,  four  pounds.  Dissolve  in  thirty  gal- 
lons of  water. 


SHEKP    DOCTOR. 


43 


The  infected  sheep  should  be  immersed  in  this,  the 
head  only  beinj^  kept  out ;  and  while  he  is  in  ihishquid, 
the  fleece  should  be  well  rubbed  and  moulded,  so  that 
the  wash  shall  penetrate  fairly  to  the  skin. 

Other  persons  prefer  the  following  lotion : 

RECIPE. 

Mercurial  Wash  for  Sheep  Lice. — Take  corrosive  sub 
limate,  one  ounce  ;  spirits  of  wme,  two  ounces  ;  rub  the 
corrosive  sublimate  in  the  spirit  until  it  is  dissolved,  and 
then  add— cream  of  tartar,  one  ounce  ;  bay  salt,  four 
ounces.  Dissolve  the  \^  hole  in  two  quarts  of  water,  and 
apply  a  little  of  it  with  a  small  piece  of  sponge  wherever 
the  lice  appear. 

These  washes,  however,  are  not  always  safe,  and  they 
are  very  troublesome  in  their  application.  The  oint- 
ment which  [  have  recommended  for  the  scab  is  more 
easily  applied,  and  more  effectual. 

RECIPE. 

Fly  Powder  for  Sheep, — Take  white  lead,  two 
pounds ;  red  lead,  one  pound ;  and  mix  them  together. 

While  one  man  holds  the  sheep  by  the  head,  let  an- 
other have  a  dredger  or  pepper-box  containmg  some  of 
the  powder  in  his  right  hand,  and  a  stick  in  his  left: 
let  him  introduce  the  stick  near  the  tail  of  the  animal, 
and  draw  it  gently  along  the  back  as  far  as  the  head, 
raising  the  wool,  and  scattering  in  the  powder  as  he 
proceeds.  Then  let  him  dip  his  hand  in  some  of  the 
coarsest  whale  oil,  and  smooth  down  the  wool  again, 
snriearing  the  whole  of  the  fleece  with  the  oil.  This 
will  not  only  destroy  the  maggots,  but  prevent  the  future 
attack  of  the  fly. 


DISEASES    OF    SWINE 


INFLAMMATION    OP    THE    LUNGS. 

This  complaint  is  known  among  the  breeders  and  fat- 
teners  of  swine  by  the  term  risinor  of  the  lights.  Every 
little  cold  is  apt  to  degenerate  into  inflammation  of  the 
lungs  in  the  fatted  or  fattening  hog. 

The  early  symptom  is  cough.  The  animal  heaves 
dreadfully  ;  he  has  a  most  distressing  cough,  which 
sometimes  almost  suffocates  him,  and  he  refuses  to  eat. 

In  many  cases  congestion  takes  place  in  the  lungs, 
and  the  animal  dies  in  three  or  four  days. 

The  first  thing  that  is  to  be  done  is  to  bleed,  and  the 
most  convenient  place  to  bleed  the  hog  is  from  t!ie  palate. 
If  an  imaginary  line  is  drawn  from  between  the  first  and 
second  front  middle  teeth,  and  extending  backward  an 
inch  along  the  palate,  and  the  palate  is  there  cut  deeply, 
with  a  lancet  or  fleam,  plenty  of  blood  will  be  obtained. 
A  large  quantity  of  blood,  however,  can  be  abstracted 
from  the  vein  on  the  inside  of  the  fore-arm,  about  an 
inch  above  the  knee.     The  application  of  cold  water 


SWINE    DOCTOR.  46 

with  a  sponge  will  generally  stop  the  bleeding  without 
difficulty 

The  following  may  be  given  : 

RECIPE. 

Fever  Medicine  for  Stcirie. — Take  digitalis,  three 
grains  ;  antimonial  powder,  six  grains  ;  nitre,  half  a 
drachm.  Mix  and  give  in  a  little  warm  swill,  or  milk, 
or  mash. 

In  the  greater  number  of  cases  the  animal  will  readily 
take  this  :  but  if  he  is  so  ill  that  nutriment  of  every  kind 
is  refused,  he  must  be  drenched. 

This  should  be  repeated  morning,  noon,  and  night, 
until  the  inflammation  is  abated.  A  purgative  should 
quickly  follow.  The  Epsom  salts  may  be  given  in  doses 
of  from  one  to  three  ounces, 

APOPLEXY  AND  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BRAIN. 

Sj/mptoms.— The  swine,  in  the  act  of  feeding,  or  whett 
moving  across  the  sty,  will  fall  suddenly,  as  if  struck 
with  lightning.  He  will  be  motionless  for  a  little  while, 
and  then  convulsions  will  come  on,  strong  and  dreadful: 
the  eyes  will  seem  protruded,  the  head  and  neck  will 
swell,  and  the  veins  of  the  neck  will  be  brought  into 
sight,  notwithstanding  the  mass  of  fat  with  which  they 
may  be  covered. 

The  course  here  is  plain  enough.  He  should  be  bled, 
and  bled  copiously.  Indeed,  the  blood  should  be  suflfered 
lo  flow  as  long  as  it  will.  Two  or  three  ounces  of  Ep- 
som salts  should  then  be  given  ;  the  quantity  and  the 
heating  character  of  the  food  should  be  diminished,  and 
a  couple  of  drachms  of  sulphur  given  daily  in  the  first 
meal. 

MEASLES. 

The  red  and  pimpled  appearance  of  the  skin,  or  of 


46  SWINE    DOCTOR. 

the  cellular  substance  between  the  flesh  and  the  skin, 

sufficiently  marks  the  disease. 

Remedi/.—hesis  food  and  not  so  stimulating,  and  oc-      *^0t 
casional  doses  of  Epsom  salts  or  sulphur. 

MANGE. 

Few  domesticated  animals  are  so  subject  to  this  loath- 
some disease  as  the  hog  if  he  is  neglected  and  kept 
filthy;  but  in  a  well  cleaned  and  well  managed  piggery 
it  is  rarely  or  never  seen,  unless  some,  whose  blood  from 
generation  to  generation  has  been  tainted  with  it,  should 
be  incautiously  admitted.  A  mangy  hog  cannot  pos- 
sibly thrive  well.  His  foul  and  scurfy  hide  will  never 
loosen  so  as  to  suffer  the  accumulation  of  flesh  and  fat 
under  it. 

Except  it  is  hereditary,  it  may,  although  with  .some 
trouble,  be  perfectly  eradicated.  The  first  thing  to  be 
done  is  to  clean  the  hog  well ;  without  this  all  ext'nnal 
application  and  internal  medicines  will  be  thrown  away. 
The  animal  must  be  scrubbed  all  over  with  a  g:ool1  strong 
soap-lather,  and  when  he  is  well  dried  with  wisps  of 
straw  he  will  be  ready  for  the  ointment,  and  no  better 
one  can  be  used  than  the  Mild  Ointment  for  scab  in 
sheep.  A  little  of  this  should  be  well  rubbed  all  over 
him  every  second  or  third  day  ;  but  at  the  same  time 
internal  medicine  should  not  be  omitted.  There  is  no 
animal  in  which  it  is  more  necessary  to  attack  this  and 
similar  diseases  with  energv. 

RECIPE. 

Alterative  Powder  for  Swine— Take,  flowers  of  sul- 
phm,  a  quarter  of  an  ounce;  TEihiop's  mineral,  three 
grains  ;  rjitre,  and  cream  of  tartar,  half  a  drachm.  Mix 
and  give  daily  in  a  little  thickened  gruel  or  wash. 

This,  like  the  scab  in  sheep,  is  a  very  infectious  di.«?- 
ease,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  scour  the  sty  well  with 


SWINE    DOCTOR.  47 

soap,  and  afterwards  to  wnsli  it  wiih  a  solution  of  chlo 
ride   of  lime.     The   riiltbiii<!^-post,   lliat   useful,   but   too 
often  nej^lected  article  of  furniture  in  every  sty,  should 
particularly  be  attended  to. 

SORE    EARS. 

Tiiere  are  very  often  troublesome  cracks  and  sores  at 
the  back  of  the  larsfe  lop-ears  of  sojue  breeds.  If  there 
is  anv  disposition  to  mang^e,  it  is  most  evident  about  the 
ears  of  these  animals,  and  the  miscliief  is  sadly  aggra- 
vated when  brutes  in  human  shape  set  every  feiocious 
dog  at  the  stray  pig.  ih^-  favorite  hold  of  which  is  the 
ear.  The  Healing  Cleansing  Ointment  for  Cattle  will 
most  readily  heal  the  sores. 

PIGGING.  I 

The  sow  usually  o;oes  with  pig  four  months.  A  week 
or  ten  days  before  her  piijging  she  should  be  separated 
from  the  rest,  otherwise  the  youno-  ones  would  probably 
be  devoured  as  soon  as  they  are  dropped. 

The  young  piofs  may  be  cut  at  three  or  four  weeks 
old  :  they  should  never  be  suffered  to  suck  longer  than 
two  months  ;  and  (hey  may  be  rung  as  soon  as  conve- 
nient after  weaning. 

.    auiNSY. 

This  disease  in  llie  hog  is  compounded  of  sore  throat 
and  enlargement  of  the  glands  of  the  throat,  and  is 
something  like  strangles  in  the  horse—  inflammation  and 
enlargement  of  the  cellular  substance  between  the  skin 
and  muscles  under  the  lower  jaw. 

The  patient  should  be  bled ;  two  ounces  of  salts 
should  be  sriven,  and  half-ounce  doses  repeated  every  six 
hours,  until  ihe  bowels  are  well  opened  ;  while  warm 
weak  wash,  or  milk  and  water,  should  be  occasionally 
poured  into  the  trougli 


SWINE    DOCTOR. 


CGSTIVENESS. 


This  is  not  an  uncommon  complaint  of  the  confined 
and  fattening  hog,  and  is  easily  removed  by  Epsom  salts, 
or  by  five  grains  of  calomel  being  given  in  a  little  of  the 
animal's  favorite  food. 

It  will  be  dans^erous,  however,  to  push  the  calomel  be- 
yond the  second  or  third  dose,  for  the  hog  is  very  easily 
salivated. 

Sometimes,  however,  this  costiveness  is  produced  by — 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    BOWELS, 

Which  is  attended  by  considerable  pain,  heat  and  ten- 
derness of  the  abdomen,  with  a  quick  pulse,  and  other 
symptoms  of  fever,  and  sometimes  by  fits  and  insensi- 
biUty. 

The  treatment  should  consist  of  copious  bleeding,  oily 
laxatives,  clysters,  warm  fomentations  to  the  abdomeo, 
and,  if  the  animal  is  not  too  large,  warm  baths. 


419 


HOMESTEAD  EXEMPTION  BILL. 

PASSED  APRIL  18,  1850 

Section  1.  In  addition  to  the  property  now  exempt  by  law  from 
sale  under  execution,  there  shall  be  exempt  by  law  from  sale  on 
execution  for  debts  hereafter  contracted,  the  lot  and  buildings 
thereon,  occupied  as  a  residence  and  owned  by  the  debtor,  being 
a  householder  and  having  a  family,  to  the  value  of  one  thousand 
dollars.  Such  exemption  shall  continue  after  the  death  of  such 
householder,  for  the  benefit  of  the  widow  and  family — some  or  one 
of  them  continuing  to  occupy  such  homestead  until  the  youngest 
child  become  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  until  the  death  of  the 
widow.  And  no  release  or  waiver  of  such  exemption  shall  be 
valid  unless  the  same  shall  be  in  writing,  subscribed  by  such  house- 
holder,  and  acknowledged  in  the  same  manner  as  conveyances  of 
real  estate  are  by  law  required  to  be  acknowledged. 

§  2.  To  entitle  any  property  to  such  exemption,  the  conveyance 
of  the  same  shall  show  that  it  is  designed  to  be  held  as  a  home- 
stead under  the  act ;  or,  if  already  purchased,  or  the  conveyance 
does  not  show  such  design,  a  notice  that  the  same  is  designed  to 
be  so  held,  shall  be  executed  and  acknowledged  by  the  person  own- 
ing the  said  property,  which  shall  contain  a  full  description  thereof, 
and  shall  be  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  Clerk  of  the  County  in 
which  the  said  property  is  situate,  in  a  book  to  be  provided  for  thai 
purpose,  and  known  as  the  "  Homestead  Exemption  Book."  Bui 
no  property  shall,  by  virtue  of  this  act,  be  exempt  from  sale  for 
non-payment  of  taxes  or  assessments,  or  for  a  debt  contracted  for 
the  purchase  thereof,  or  prior  to  the  recording  of  the  aforesaid  deed 
or  notice. 

^  3.  If,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Sheriff  holding  an  execution  against 
snch  hou?eholder,  the  premises  claimed  by  him  or  her  as  exempt, 
are  worth  more  than  one  thousand  dollars,  he  shall  summon  six 
qualified  jurors  of  his  county,  who  shall  upon  oath,  to  be  adminis- 
tered to  them  by  such  Sheriff,  appraise  sucii  premises ;  and  if,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  jury,  the  property  may  be  divided  without  injury 
to  the  interests  of  the  parties,  they  shall  set  off  so  ranch  of  said 
premises,  including  the  dwellino--house,  as  in  their  opinion  shall  be 
worth  one  thousand  dollars;  and  the  residue  of  said  premises  may- 
be advertised  and  sold  by  such  Sheriff. 


420  GOODS  EXEMPT  IN  NEW-JERSEY. 

}  4.  In  case  the  value  of  the  premises  shall,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
jury,  be  more  lliari  one  thousand  dollars,  and  cannot  be  divided 
as  is  provided  for  in  the  last  section,  they  shall  make  and  sinrn  an 
appraisal  of  the  value  thereof,  and  deliver  the  same  to  the  Sheriff, 
who  shall  deliver  a  eo])y  thereof  to  ihe  execution  debtor,  or  to  some 
one  of  liis  family,  of  suitable  age  to  understand  the  nature  thereof, 
with  a  notice  thereof  attached,  that  unless  the  execution  debtor 
shall  pay  to  said  Sheriff  the  surplus  over  and  above  one  thousand 
dollars  within  sixty  days  thereafter,  that  such  premises  will  be 
sold. 

}  5.  In  case  such  surplus  shall  not  be  paid  within  the  said  sixty 
days,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  Sheriff  to  advertise  and  sell  the  said 
premises,  and  out  of  the  proceeds  of  such  sale  to  pay  to  said  exe- 
cution debtor  the  said  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars,  which  shall  be 
exempt  from  execution  for  one  year  thereafter,  and  apply  the  balance 
on  such  execution :  provided,  that  no  sale  shall  be  made  unless  a 
greater  sum  than  one  thousand  dollars  shall  be  bid  therefor;  in 
which  case  the  Sheriff  may  return  the  execution  for  want  of  pro- 
perty. 

Ij  6.  The  costs  and  expenses  of  seHing  off  such  homestead,  as 
provided  herein,  shall  be  charged  and  included  in  the  Sheriff's  bill 
of  cost  upon  the  said  execution. 

(  7.  This  Act  shall  take  effect  on  the  first  day  of  January,  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty-one. 


GOODS  EXEMPT  FROM  EXECUTION  IN  NEW- JERSEY, 

Being  the  Property  of  a  Debtor  having  a  Family. 

One  cow;  one  bed  and  bedding;  one  cradle;  one  stove ;  one 
half  cord  of  fire-wood ;  one  half  ton  stone  coal ;  one  spinning- 
wheel ;  one  table;  six  chairs;  one  hog;  one  hundred  weight  of 
flour;  one  iron  cooking-pot;  one  dozen  knives  and  forks;  one 
dozen  plates;  one  dozen  spoons:  one  half-dozen  bowls;  two  pails; 
one  barrel;  one  cotlVe-pot;  one  tub  ;  one  frying-pan  ;  the  necessary 
tools  of  a  tradesman,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars  in  value ;  and  all 
wearing  apparel. 


